1. Cognition and Mental Abilities
Chapter 7
Cognition and Mental Abilities

2. Outline Building Blocks of Thought Problem Solving Decision Making
Intelligence and Mental Abilities
Heredity, Environment, and Intelligence

3. Outline Building Blocks of Thought Problem Solving Decision Making
Intelligence and Mental Abilities
Heredity, Environment, and Intelligence

4. Building Blocks of Thought
The three most important building blocks of thought
Language
Images
Concepts
Cognition
The process whereby we acquire and use knowledge

5. Language Language Phonemes Morphemes
A flexible system of communication that uses sounds, rules, gestures, or symbols to convey information
Phonemes
The basic sounds that make up any language
Morphemes
The smallest meaningful unit of speech, such as simple words, prefixes, and suffixes
Play a key role in human thought
Combine morphemes to create words that represent complex ideas *
Phonemes
The basic sounds that make up any language
i.e. the sounds of t, th and k
45 in the English language

6. Language Grammar Syntax Semantics Surface Structure Deep Structure
The language rules that determine how sounds and words can be combined and used to communicate meaning within a language
Syntax
Systems of rules that govern how we combine words to form meaningful phrases and sentences
Semantics
How we assign meaning to morphemes, words, phrases and sentences – the content of language
Surface Structure
The particular words and phrases of a sentence
Deep Structure
The underlying meaning of the sentence *
Syntax
Systems of rules that govern how we combine words to form meaningful phrases and sentences
i.e. order: Sally hit the car vs the car hit Sally

7. Language
Syntax and semantics enable speakers and listeners to perform transformations between surface and deep structure

8. Direction of Movement in Speech
Noam Chomsky’s notion of transformations.

9. Images Images Mental representations of sensory experiences
Allow us to think about things and solve problems in nonverbal ways

10. Concepts Concepts Prototype
Mental categories for classifying objects, people, or experiences
Used to create and organize hierarchies or groups of subordinate categories
Help us to think efficiently about things and how they relate to one another
Give meaning to new experiences
Prototype
A mental model containing the most typical features of a concept

11. Language, Thought, and Culture
Whorf’s Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis
Patterns of thinking are determined by the specific language one speaks
Critics contend that Whorf overstated his case
Thought, they say, can shape and change a language as much as a language can shape and change thought
Benjamin Whorf (1956) page 228
“Whorfian Hypothesis”

12. Outline Building Blocks of Thought Problem Solving Decision Making
Intelligence and Mental Abilities
Heredity, Environment, and Intelligence

13. Problem Solving Three aspects of problem solving Interpretation
Strategy
Evaluation

14. The Interpretation of Problems
Problem Representation
The first step in solving a problem
Interpreting or defining the problem
Divergent Thinking
Thinking that meets the criteria of originality, inventiveness, and flexibility
Generates many different possible answers
Convergent Thinking
Thinking that is directed toward one correct solution to a problem

15. Producing Strategies & Evaluating Progress
Problem-solving approaches
How was the problem solved in the past?
Trial and error
Algorithms
A step-by-step method of problem solving that guarantees a correct solution
Heuristics
Rules of thumb that help in simplifying and solving problems
Do not guarantee a correct solution
Troubleshooting
Anticipating what problems may arise before they develop
Brainstorming
An individual or group produces numerous ideas and evaluates them only after all ideas have been collected
After interpreting the problem, the next step is selecting a solution strategy and evaluating progress

16. Obstacles to Solving Problems
An individual’s level of motivation
Mental Set
The tendency to perceive and approach problems in certain ways
Functional Fixedness
The tendency to perceive only a limited number of uses for an object

17. Outline Building Blocks of Thought Problem Solving Decision Making
Intelligence and Mental Abilities
Heredity, Environment, and Intelligence

18. Decision Making
Decision making is a special kind of problem solving in which we already know all the possible solutions or choices
The task is not to come up with new solutions but rather to identify the best available one based on whatever criteria we are using

19. Logical Decision Making
Compensatory Model
A rational decision-making model in which choices are systematically evaluated on various criteria

20. Decision-Making Heuristics
When people use heuristics to help make decisions, they can save a great deal of time and effort, but they do not always make the best choices
Representativeness
A heuristic by which a new situation is judged on the basis of its resemblance to a stereotypical model
Availability
A heuristic by which a judgment or decision is based on information that is most easily retrieved from memory
Confirmation Bias
The tendency to look for evidence in support of a belief and to ignore evidence that would disprove a belief

21. Explaining Our Decisions
Framing
The perspective from which we interpret information before making a decision
Hindsight Bias
The tendency to see outcomes as inevitable and predictable after we know the outcome
Counterfactual Thinking
Thinking about alternative realities and things that never happened
“If only…”
Framing
Survival Frame
Mortality Frame

22. Outline Building Blocks of Thought Problem Solving Decision Making
Intelligence and Mental Abilities
Heredity, Environment, and Intelligence

23. Intelligence and Mental Abilities
A general term referring to the ability or abilities involved in learning and adaptive behavior

24. Theories of Intelligence
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence

25. Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Analytical Intelligence
Mental processes such as ability to learn how to do things, acquire knowledge, solve problems, and carry our tasks
Creative Intelligence
The ability to adjust to new tasks, use new concepts, respond effectively in new situations, gain insight and adapt creatively
Practical Intelligence
Finding solutions to practical and personal problems
Seek out situations that match their skills, shape those situations to better fit their talents and know when to change situations to better fit their talents
Enables people to get along successfully in the world

26. Theory of Multiple Intelligence
There is not one intelligence, but rather many intelligences, each of which is relatively independent of the others
Logical-mathematical
Linguistic
Spatial
Musical
Body-kinesthetic
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
Naturalistic
Logical-mathematical
Ability to handle chains of reasoning, numerical relations, and hierarchical relations
Linguistic
Sensitivity to the meaning and order of words, as well as the functions of language
Spatial
Ability to perceive the world accurately and to transform and recreate perceptions
Musical
Sensitivity to pitch, tone, timbre, and musical patterns
Body-kinesthetic
Ability to use one’s body or to work with objects in highly differentiated and skillful ways
Interpersonal
Ability to notice and make distinctions among the moods, temperaments, motivations, and intentions of others
Intrapersonal
Ability to understand one’s own feelings and use them to guide behavior
Naturalistic
Individual’s ability to understand, relate to, and interact with the world of nature

27. Emotional Intelligence
How effectively people perceive and understand their own emotions and the emotions of others, and can regulate their emotional behavior
Five Traits:
Knowing one’s own emotions
Managing one’s emotions
Using emotions to motivate oneself
Recognizing the emotions of other people
Managing relationships

28. Intelligence Tests Binet-Simon Scale Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
The first test of intelligence, developed for testing children
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
Adapted from the Binet-Simon Scale by Louis Terman
Designed to measure four kinds of mental abilities
Verbal Reasoning
Abstract/Visual Reasoning
Quantitative Reasoning
Short-Term Memory
Best suited for children, adolescents and very young adults
Intelligence Quotient (IQ):
A numerical value given to intelligence that is determined from the scores on an intelligence test on the basis of a score of 100 average intelligence

29. Wechsler Intelligence Scales
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-III)
An individual intelligence test developed especially for adults; measures both verbal and performance abilities
Results in separate verbal and performance scores as well as an overall IQ score
Unique scoring system gives credit for reflective qualities we expect to find in intelligent adults
For some questions, both seed and accuracy affect score
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-III)
An individual intelligence test developed especially for school-aged children; measures both verbal and performance abilities

30. Group Tests Group Tests Advantages Disadvantages
Written intelligence tests administered by one examiner to many people at a time
Advantages
Eliminate bias on the part of the examiner
Norms are easier to establish
Disadvantages
Examiner less likely to notice if the person is tired, ill or confused by the directions
People not used to be tested tend to do less well in group tests than on individual tests
Emotionally disturbed children and children with learning disabilities do better on individual tests than group tests

31. Performance and Culture-Fair Tests
Performance Tests
Intelligence tests that minimize the use of language
Culture-Fair Tests
Intelligence tests designed to eliminate cultural bias by minimizing skills and values that vary from one culture to another

32. What Makes a Good Test? Reliability Split-half reliability
Ability of a test to produce consistent and stable scores
Split-half reliability
A method of determining test reliability by dividing the test into two parts and checking the agreement on both parts

33. What Makes a Good Test? Validity Content Validity
Ability of a test to measure what it has been designed to measure
Content Validity
Refers to a test’s having an adequate sample of questions measuring the skills or knowledge it is supposed to measure
Criterion-Related Validity
Validity of a test as measured by a comparison of the test score and independent measures of what the test is designed to measure
Trashcan Test

34. Criticisms of IQ Tests Narrowness of content
Assessing a very limited set of skills
Content and administration do not sufficiently take into account cultural variations and may discriminate against minorities

35. IQ and Success IQ scores predict success in school with some accuracy
Require similar kinds of motivation, attention, perseverance and test-taking ability
Attitudes and Beliefs
Self-fulfilling prophecy
Teachers may encourage students with high IQs more than other students
IQ scores tend to predict success after people finish their schooling

36. Outline Building Blocks of Thought Problem Solving Decision Making
Intelligence and Mental Abilities
Heredity, Environment, and Intelligence

37. Heredity, Environment, and Intelligence
Is intelligence inherited, or the product of environment?

38. Heredity
Scientists use studies of identical twins to measure the effects of heredity in humans
When identical twins are raised in different families, they tend to have very similar test scores
Similarity is much greater than between non-twin siblings who grow up in the same environment
Adopted children have IQ scores more similar to their biological mothers than the mother raising them

39. Correlations of IQ Scores and Family Relationships

40. Environment
Genes provide a base, but experience plays an important role in the development of intelligence
Nutrition
Human interaction
Intellectually stimulating environments
Socioeconomic status (SES) of parents

41. Intervention Programs
Can intervention programs that enhance the environments of impoverished children have a positive impact on their IQ?
Head Start
Focuses on preschoolers (3-5 years old) from low-income families
Provides children with some educational and social skills before they go to school
Provides information about nutrition and health to both children and their families
Head Start school graduates tend to stay in school longer and more likely to graduate from college
Long-term effects of Head Start does boost cognitive abilities, but they may be modest or short-term

42. Understanding the Interaction of Heredity & Environment
Is one more important than the other?
Depends on the IQs being compared
Group differences in IQ scores might be due to environmental factors
Differences among people within groups could be due primarily to genetics
50% of the differences in intelligence are due to genetics and 50% due to environment and education

43. Extremes of Intelligence
The IQ’s of nearly 70% of the general population fall between 85 and 115
All but 5% of the population have IQ’s between 70 and 130
Extremes of intelligence
Mental Retardation
Giftedness
See IQ examples
See Distribution scores and IQ examples (handout form, in Chapter 7 folder)

44. Mental Retardation
Condition of significantly subaverage intelligence combined with deficiencies in adaptive behavior
25% of cases – especially the more severe forms of retardation - appear to have genetic or biological disorders
Phenylketonuria (PKU):
The liver fails to produce an enzyme necessary for brain development
Fragile-x syndrome:
Due to a defect in the X chromosome
Down syndrome
Results from a defect on chromosome 21

45. Levels of Mental Retardation
Refer back to Webslice

46. Giftedness
Refers to superior IQ combined with demonstrated or potential ability in such areas as academic aptitude, creativity, and leadership
Gifted people do not necessarily excel in all mental abilities
Sometimes they are gifted in one area without being gifted in others
Research does not support the stereotype that they have poor social skills and are emotionally maladjusted

47. Creativity
The ability to produce novel and socially valued ideas or objects
How is creativity measured?
Scores are based on the originality and number of a person’s answers
Remote Associates Test (RAT)
Asks people to relate three apparently unrelated words
Study of creativity demonstrates mental abilities are
complex and multi-faceted
Linked to personality dimensions and motivational levels

48. Chapter Review Building Blocks of Thought
What steps do we go through to turn a thought into a statement?
What role do images play in thinking?
How do concepts help us think more efficiently?
How do language, thought and culture influence each other?

49. Chapter Review Problem Solving Decision Making
Why is representing the problem so important to finding an effective solution?
Why is an algorithm often better for solving a problem than is the process of trail and error?
How can a “mental set” both help and hinder problem solving?
Decision Making
How would you go about making a truly logical decision?
How can heuristic approaches lead us to make bad decisions?

50. Chapter Review Intelligence and Mental Abilities
What are some of the major theories of intelligence?
What kinds of intelligence tests are in use today?
What are some important characteristics of a good test?
Heredity, Environment, and Intelligence
Why are twin studies useful in studying intelligence?
What have we learned from early intervention program about the influence of the environment on intellectual development?
What do psychologists know about the two extremes of human intelligence: very high and very low?
What is creativity?