1. From the Body to Gender

2. Videos Killing Us Softly Bro Code

3. Videos Killing Us Softly –Women are routinely objectified in our culture Valued for their appearance over other traits Sexualized Turned into objects Bro Code –Contemporary culture promotes sexist men by: Training men to objectify (or womanize) Immerse men in porn Make rape jokes Obey the masculinity police

4. Videos Killing Us Softly –Women are routinely objectified in our culture Valued for their appearance over other traits Sexualized Turned into objects Bro Code –Contemporary culture promotes sexist men by: Training men to objectify (or womanize) Immerse men in porn Make rape jokes Obey the masculinity police

5. The role of the media Product and Producer Unrealistic images of beauty for men and women Underrepresentation of women of color Overrepresentation of women as “parts”

6. Unrealistic Body Images The ideal female body is unattainable, unrealistic, and dangerous Men are coming under increased pressure to obtain muscular, lean ideals (25 years) Naked male image is more frequent in the last decade Still, this new emphasis on male image is not equivalent to women’s.

7. Images of Women of Color (Baker, 2005; Coltrane & Messaneo, 2000) Tokenism Under Representation Bias –Under 10% of mainstream TV ads include people of color Subtle Racism –Inconsequential –Subservient to White Sexual images

8. Women as “Parts” Pervasive tendency to depict women’s bodies more than their faces Faceism = index of facial prominence Lowest Faceism Index: Black Women

9. Self-Objectification Living in a culture that sexually objectified women more than men Women learn to view themselves as objects Objectification = tendency to regard one’s physical self primarily in terms of appearance and to adopt an observer’s perspective on the physical self

10. Self-Objectification Questionnaire NSTRUCTIONS: We are interested in how people think about their bodies. The questions below identify 10 different attributes. We would like you to rank order these body attributes from that which has the greatest impact on your physical self-concept, to that which has the least impact on your physical self-concept. NOTE: It does not matter how you describe yourself in terms of each attribute. For example, fitness level can have a great impact on your physical self-concept regardless of whether you consider yourself to be physically fit, not physically fit, or any level in between. Please first read over all of the attributes. Then, record your rank by writing the letter of the attribute. WHEN CONSIDERING YOUR PHYSICAL SELF-CONCEPT, HOW IMPORTANT IS… 9 = most important and 0 = least important a. physical coordination? f. physical attractiveness? b. health? g. energy level (e.g. stamina)? c. weight? h. firm/sculpted muscles? d. strength? i. physical fitness level? e. sex appeal? j. measurements

11. SO Score Sum of appearance related traits Sum of competence related traits Subtract competence from appearance related traits Higher numbers = Greater objectification

12. States of Objectification Cover Story: Consumer Product Evaluation Two conditions: Women and men asked to try on speedo swimsuit or sweater DV: Level of objectification, shame and math performance Measure of SO How many cookies they ate

13. Swimsuit v. Sweater: Self-Esteem

14. Swimsuit v. Sweater: Body Concerns

15. Swimsuit v. Sweater: Body Shame

16. Swimsuit v. Sweater: Math Performance

17. Effect of the Swimsuit (shorts/swimsuits v. sweater)

18. That swimsuit becomes you Both men and women in speedos (of various ethnicities) showed:

19. Gender Differences Main effect for gender: –Women always rated themselves higher on body shame and self-objectification. Different methodologies:

20. Fig. 1. Talking time as a function of participant’s gender, partner’s gender, and communication condition. Saguy T et al. Psychological Science 2010;21:178-182 Copyright © by Association for Psychological Science

21. Fig. 2. Percentages of women and men who chose each communication condition as their least preferred one. Saguy T et al. Psychological Science 2010;21:178-182 Copyright © by Association for Psychological Science

23. Physiological Disconnect Insensitivity to body sensation Women are less accurate in estimating their heartbeat, blood glucose levels, and stomach contractions than are men. Women’s subjective experience of arousal correlated to a lesser degree with their physiological sexual arousal than men.

24. Measuring Up-Where does shame come from?(Fallon & Rozin, 1985) Ratings of their current size, the ideal, what they think is attractive to opposite sex Women thought they were heavier than the their perceptions of men’s ideal Men actually prefer heavier women than women believe –Men thought they were about the same as ideal Women actually prefer smaller than men think What are the implications?

25. Why do we care about appearance? Appearance is often paired with ROMANCE and RELATIONSHIP SUCCESS Women hear that men value appearance over all else!

26. Testing the link Exposed men and women to relationship primes or neutral primes Relationship primes: marriage, romance, relationship, partner Neutral primes: door, house, gate, brick Measured SO

27. Romance Primes Self- Objectification Among Single Women

29. Basing SE in Relationships Contingencies of self-worth The extent to which SE is connected to relationship status For Men and Women Alike

30. GENDER

31. Gender We are hardwired to notice sex –Single most remembered characteristic This may lead us to assume many sex differences. However, men and women are more alike than they are different Differences between men and women are smaller than intragroup differences

32. How big are gender differences?.80 = LARGE DIFFERENCE.50 = MODERATE DIFFERENCE.20 = SMALL DIFFERENCE

33. ON SIMILARITIES (Hyde, 2005)

34. Bem’s Typology Sex (biological) v. Gender (social) In 1970s, Sandra Bem argued that people were not necessarily sex = gender Instead, masculine, feminine, a mix of both, or neither –Androgynous –Undifferentiated Psychologically gendered on a continuum

35. 1970’s research Men and women fell into sex-typed quandrants She found relatively few androgynous people How did she measure it? Predetermined list of attributes known to be gender-stereotyped!

36. Bem Sex Role Inventory Confident Leadership Athletic Opinionated Decisive Risk Taking Aggressive Masculine Compassionate Likes Children Agreeable Cheerful Nurturing Modest Gullible Feminine

37. Contemporary Research Given no other choice, men and women sex typed themselves Better idea is to let people report the attributes they identify with. Then, men and women report the same, positive traits

38. Evolution of Gender Roles Assertiveness (Twenge, 2001) –Sociocultural –Meta-Analysis Social Status –Education/Work Opportunities

39. Women’s Assertiveness (Twenge, 2001)

40. Degrees Awarded to Women

41. Median Age of Marriage

42. Social Role Theory (Eagly, 1987) Origin of sex differences Differences evolve from societal roles Divisions of labor create gender-role expectations Socialization Reinforcements

43. World War II

44. Sex differences in emotion? Women are believed to be more emotionally expressive than men They are expected to emote more, to show more sadness, fear, and guilt. There is only one emotion men are expected to show more! Can you guess?

45. Is this true? The evidence for stereotyped beliefs is strong, but not necessarily accurate Jussim asked people about stereotyped beliefs Both men and women believed women were more open emotionally expressive but few, if any, reported differences.

46. Why do we believe these differences exist? Gender norms and expectations Feeling does not mean expressing We often don’t see gender role reversals Believing in gender ideals and following rules often reduces autonomy (Sanchez et al., 2005; Sanchez et al., 2006)

47. Gender Norm Violations Backlash = Consequences fear of backlash?

48. Fear of Backlash for Women Harsh sanctions for gender role violators Competence v. Likable –Women who self-promote are seen as more competence but less hireable and less socially attractive

49. Backlash Creates a vicious cycle of gender stereotyping Double bind

50. Backlash as Identity Misclassification and the Masculinity Police Fear of Identity Misclassification –Being perceived as a social identity that you are not

51. Study All heterosexual men Engaged in feminine/masculine task Confirm heterosexuality v. No confirmation Public v. Private

52. Bosson et al. (2005)

53. Precarious Manhood (Bosson & Vandello, 2011) Masculinity is something you need to earn, and it is difficult to do so it is: How do you earn it?

54. Fig. 1. Percentages of physical reasons (e.g., “Grew weak with age”) and social reasons (e.g., “Behaved badly”) that people generated to explain either how a man might lose his manhood or how a woman might lose her womanhood. Bosson J K, and Vandello J A Current Directions in Psychological Science 2011;20:82-86 Copyright © by Association for Psychological Science

55. Fig. 2. Percentages of stems completed as aggressive words (e.g., fight vs. right; punch vs. lunch) by men and women who received feedback that either threatened or boosted their gender status. Bosson J K, and Vandello J A Current Directions in Psychological Science 2011;20:82-86 Copyright © by Association for Psychological Science

56. Sexism: Ambivalence and Double Standards Blatant displays of sexism are less socially acceptable than in the past –But do continue to persist today Gender stereotypes are distinct in that they are not only descriptive, but also prescriptive –They tell people what they should do or be

57. Sex Discrimination Seems to have diminished over time, but discrimination based on sex is still prevalent today

58. Women in Specific Occupations

59. Ambivalent Sexism Form of sexism characterized by attitudes about women that reflect both negative, resentful beliefs/feelings as well as affectionate and chivalrous but potentially patronizing beliefs/feelings –Hostile sexism –Benevolent sexism

60. 60 Ambivalent Sexism (Glick & Fiske) Consists of two elements: –Hostile sexism, characterized by negative, resentful feelings about women’s abilities, values and ability to challenge men’s power. –Benevolent sexism, characterized by affectionate, chivalrous, but potentially patronizing feelings of women needing and deserving protection.

61. People Typically Don’t Recognize Exposure to BS (or Other Forms of Complimentary Stereotypes) Increases Support for Status Quo (Jost& Kay, 2003)

62. What is the Danger in Benevolent Sexism (BS)? Aside from being relatively undetectable and making people believe that status quo is fine…… Victims of BS tend to perform worse on competence tasks (Dardenne et al., 2007)