Research problems, Research Questions, Research Hypotheses

Research problems, Research Questions, Research Hypotheses
Dr. Aidah Abu Elsoud Alkaissi An-Najah National University Faculty of Nursing

Overview of research problems
Studies begin as problems that researchers want to solve or as questions they want to answer

Basic terminology Researcher selects topic or a phenomenon on which to focus Example of research topics: Adolescent smoking Patient compliance Coping with disability Pain management Within each are many potential research problems

Basic terminology A research problem: is enigmatic (not clear to the understanding), perplexing (lacking clarity of meaning), or troubling condition The purpose of research is to solve the problem or to contribute to its solution by accumulating relevant information A problem statement: a problem statement articulates the problem to be addressed and indicates the need for a study Please read table4-1 page 66 which represent a problem statement related to the topic of the side effects of chemotherapy

Basic terminology Research questions: are the specific queries (demand for answers ) researchers want to answer in addressing the research problem Research questions guide the types of data to be collected in a study Researchers who make specific predictions regarding answers to the research question pose (introduce) hypotheses that are tested empirically

Basic terminology A statement of purpose: which is the researcher´s summary of the overall goal of a study Research aims or objectives: the specific accomplishments the researcher hopes to acheive by conducting the study The objectives include obtaining answers to reach questions or testing research hypotheses May also encompass some broader aims (e.g. Developing recommendations for changes to nursing practice based on the study results )

Research problems and paradigms
Quantitative study involves concepts that are fairly well developed There is an existing body of literature Reliable methods of measurement have been developed E.g. a quantitative study might be undertaken to determine if postpartum depression is higher among women who are employed 6 months after delivery than among those who stay home with their babies

Research problems and paradigms
Qualitative studies are often undertaken because some aspect of a phenomenon is poorly understood, and the researcher wants to develop a rich, comprehensive and context-bound understanding of it Qualitative metods would not be well suited to comparing levels of depression among two groups of women, but thet would be ideal for exploring for example, the meaning of postpartum depression among new mothers

Source of research problems
Students are sometimes puzzled about the origins of research problems Where do ideas for research problems come from How do researchers select topic areas and develop research questions At the most basic level, research topics originate researchers´interests Explicit (precisely and clearly expressed or readily observable) sources that might fuel researchers curiosity include experience, the nursing literature, social issuess, theories and ideas from others with

1. Experience and clinical fieldwork
The nurse´s every day clinical experience is a rich source of ideas for research problems As you are performing your nursing functions, you are bound to find a wealth of research ideas if you are curious about why things are the way they are or about how things could be improved if something were to change You may be well along the way to developing research ideas if you have ever asked the following kinds of research: Why are things done this way? What information would help to solve this problem

Experience and clinical fieldwork
What is the process by which this situation arose? What would happen if ………? How to proceed: Watch for recurring problems and see if you can discern (detect with the senses) a pattern in situations that lead to the problem Please read examples page 67

Nursing litterature Ideas for research projects often come from reading the nursing literature Beginning nurse researchers can profit from regularly reading nursing journals, either clinical specialty journals or research journals Published research reports may suggest problem areas indirectly by stimulating the imagination and directly specifying further areas need of investigation Read example page 67

Nursing litterature Researchers wonder whether a study similar to one reported in a journal article would yield comparable results if applied in a different setting or with different population Replications (A reply to an answer) are needed to establish the validity and generalizability of previous findings

Social issues Sometimes topics are suggested by more global contemporary (Belonging to the same period of time) social or political issues As Feminist movement has raised questions about such topics as sexual harassment (unwelcome sexual behavior by a supervisor toward an employee), domestic violence (violence or physical abuse directed toward your spouse or domestic partner; usually violence by men against women), and gender equity in health care and in research

Social issues The civil rights movement has led to research on minority health problems, access to health care and culturally sensitive interventions

Theory Theories must be tested through research for their applicability to hospital unites… If the theory is correct What kind of behavior would i expect to find in certain situations or under certain conditions What kind of evidence would support this theory

Ideas from external sources
a faculty member Sponsor funded research Priority for nursing research Professional conferences

Development and refinement (a highly developed state of perfection) of research problems
Selecting a topic: the development of a research problem is a creative process that depends on imagination and ingenuity (the power of creative imagination) In early stages, when research ideas are being generated, it is wise not to be critical of them immediately It is better to begin by relaxing and jotting (a brief written record) down general areas of interest as they come to mind At this point, it matters little if the terms used to remind you of your ideas are abstract or concrete, broad or specific, technical or colloquial (characteristic of informal spoken language or conversation) - the important point is to put some ideas on paper

Example, patient communication, pain in patients with cancer, postoperative loss of orientation After this first step, the ideas can be sorted in terms of interest, knowledge about the topics and the perceived (detected by means of the senses) feasibility (Capable of being accomplished or brought about) of turning the topics into a research project

Narrowing the topic: Once researchers have identified a topic of interest, they need to ask questions that lead to researchable problem Examples of questions stems that may help to focus an inquiry include the following: What is going on…? What is the process by which…? What is the meaning of…? Why do…? When do..? How do…?

What can be done to solve…? What is the extent of…? How intens are..? What influences…? What causes…? What characteristics are associated with..? What differences exist between..? What are the consequences of…? What is the relationship between..? What factors contribute to…? What conditions prevail (To be greater in strength or influence) before..?

Early criticism of ideas is often counterproductive (tending to hinder the achievement of a goal) Try not to jump to the conclusion that an idea sounds trivial (Of little significance or value) or uninspired without giving it more careful consideration or without exploring it with advisers or colleagues Beginning researchers often develop problems that are too broad in scope or too complex and unwieldy (difficult to use or handle or manage because of size or weight or shape) for their level of methodologic expertise

As researchers move from general topics to more specific researchable problems, more than one potential problem area can emerge Researchers choose the final problem to be studied based on several factors, including its inherent interest to them and its compatibility with a paradigm of preference Tentative problems usually vary in their feasibility and worth

Evaluationg Research problem
There are no rules for making a final selection of a research problem The four most important consideration are the significance, researchability, and feasibility of the problem and its interest to the researcher

the Significance of Problem
Its significance to nursing practice Meaningfully to nursing knowledge Researchers should pose the following kinds of questions: Is the problem an important one? Will patients, nurses or the broader health care community or society benefit from the evidence that will be produced? Will the results lead to practical applications Will the findings challenge untested asuumptions? Will the study help to formulate or alter nursing practices or policies If the answer to all these questions is ”no” then the problem should be abandoned (behind, left alone)

Researchability of the problem
In quantitative studies, researchable problems are ones involving variables that can be precisely defined and measured For example, suppose a researcher is trying to determine what effect early discharge has on patient well-being Well being is too vague a concept for a study The researcher would have to sharpen and define the concept so it could be observed and measured The researcher would have to establish criteria against which patients´ progress toward well being could be assessed

Researchability of the problem
When a new area of inquiry (a search for knowledge) is being pursued, it may be impossible to define the concepts of interest in precise terms It may be appropriate to address the problem using in-depth qualitative research The problem may be stated fairly broad terms to permit full exploration of the concept of interest

Feasibility of adressing the problem
A problem that is both significant and researchable may still inappropriate if a study designed to address it is not feasible The issue of feasibility encompasses various considerations Not all of following factors are relevant for every problem but they should be kept in mind in making a final decision

Time and Timing Most studies have deadlines or at least goals for completion It is wise to be conservative in estimating time for various tasks because research activities often require more time to accomplish than anticipated (expected hopefully) Some of the research steps-especially data collection-may be more readily performed at certain times of the day, week, or year than at other times For example , if the problem focused on patients with peptic ulcers, the research might be more easily conducted in the fall and spring because of the increase in the number of patients with peptic ulcers during these seasons When the timing requirements of the tasks do not match the time available for their performance, the feasibility of the project may be jeopardized (present a danger to)

Availability of study participants
In any study involving humans, researchers need to consider whether individuals with the desired characteristics will be available and willing to cooperate Securing people´s cooperation may in some cases be easy, but other situations may pose more difficulties Somepeople may not have the time, others may have no interest in a study that has little personal benefit, and others may not feel well enough to participate People are welling to cooperate if research demands are minimal

Availability of study participants
Researchers may need to exert extra effort in recruiting participants- or may have to offer a monetary- if the research is time-consuming or demanding An additional problem may be that of identifying and locating people with needed characterisics Example, if we were interested in studying the coping strategies of people who had lost a family member through suicide, we would have to develop a plan for identifyin prospective participants from this distinct and inconspicuous (Not readily noticeable) population

Cooperation of others It is insufficient to obtain the cooperation of prospective study participants alone If the sample includes children, mentally incompenent people, or senile individuals, t would be necessary to secure the permission of parents or guardians In institutional or organizational settings, as hospitals, access to clients, members, personnel, or records usually requires administrative authorization Citical requirement in many qualitative studies is gaining entree´into an appropriate community, setting, or group and developing the trust of gatekeepers

Facilities and equipments
What equipment and facilities will be needed and whether they will be available before embarking on project to avoid disappointment and frustration Please read page 72

Experience of the researcher
The problem should be chosen from a field about which investigators have some prior knowledge or experience Researchers have difficulty adequately developing a study on a topic that is totally new and unfamiliar- although clinical fieldwork before launching (To enter enthusiastically into something) the study may make up for certain deficiencies Inaddition to substantive knowledge, the issue of technical expertise should not be overlooked (To fail to notice)

Ethical consideration
A research problem may not befeasible because the investigation of the problem would pose unfair or unethical demands on participants People engaged in research activities should be thoroughly knowledgeable about the rights of human or animal subjects

Interest to research Genuine (honestly felt or experienced) interest in and curiosity about the chosen research problem are critical prerequisites to a successful study A great deal of time and energy are expended in a study

Communication the research Problem
The problem and the research problem should be carefully stated in writing before proceeding with the design of the study or with field work Putting one´s ideas in writing is often sufficien to illuminate (clarify) anbiguities and uncertainities

Problem statements A problem statement is an expression of dilemma or disturbing situation that needs investigation for the purpose of providing understanding and direction A problem statement identifies the nature of the problem that isbeing addressed in the study and typically its context and significance The problem statement should be broad enough to include central concerns but narrow enough in scope to serve as a guide to study design Plese read example page 74

Problem statements The problem statement for a qualitative study expresses the nature of the problem, its context and its significance Please read example in page 74

Statement of purpose Many researchers first articulate their research goals formally as a statement of purpose, worded in the declarative form The statement capture in one or two clear sentences- the essence of the study The purpose statement establishes the general direction of the inquiry The words purpose or goal appear in a purpose statement( e.g., the purpose of this study was… or the goal of this study was…) bu´t sometimes the word intent, aim, objective are used instead

Statement of purpose Some research reports leave the statement of purpose implicit, placing an unnecessary burden on readers to make inferences about the goals (reasoning involves in drawing a conclusion) Please read example page 74 The study purpose is to test or etermine or evaluate the effectiv Researchers most often state their purpose or quastions at the end of the introductory section of the report

Research Questions Direct rewording of statements of purpose, phrased interrogatively (A sentence or an expression that asks a question) rather than declaratively Please read example page 75 The question has the advantage of simplicity and directness Question invites an answer and help to focus attention on the kinds of data that would have to be collected to provide that answer

Research Questions Some research reports omit a statement of purpose and state only research questions Other researchers use a set of research questions to clarify or land greater specifity to the purpose statement

Example of research questions clarifying a statement of purpose
The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between method of pain management during labor and specific labor and birth outcomes Research questions: are nonepidural and epidural methods of pain relief associated with augmentation during the first stage of labor? Is the length of second stage labor associated with epidural and nonepidural methods of pain relief? Are newborn Apgor scores at a minute and 5 minutes associated with metod of pain relief Does epidural anesthesia affect maternal temperature

Example of research questions clarifying a statement of purpose
In this example, the statement of purpose provides a global message about the researchers´goal to explore relationships among several variables The research questions identified the two methods of pain management (the independent variable ) and the specific labor and birth outcomes of interest (the dependent variables)

Research Questions in Quantitative Studies
In quantitative studies, research question identify the key variables (especially the independent and dependent variables) The relationships among them, and the population under study The variables are all measurable concepts, and the questions suggest quantification For example a descriptive question might ask about the frequency or prevalence of variables or their average values (what percentage of women breastfeed their infants?

Most quantitative studies ask questions about relationships between variables Example of women´s emotional responses to miscarriage: Existence of relationship: is there relationship between miscarriage and depression that is, are there differences in depression levels of pregnant women who miscarry compared with those who do not

Direction of relationship: Do women who miscarry exhibit higher (or lower) levels of depression than pregnant women who do not? Strength of relationship: how strong is the risk of depression among women who miscarry? Nature of relationship: does having a miscarriage contribute to depression? Does depression contribute to a miscarriage? Or does some other factor influence both?

Moderated relationship: are levels of depression among women who miscarry moderated by whether the woman has previously given birth?(i.e., is the relationship between depression and miscarriage different for primiparas and multiparas? Mediated relationship: does a miscarriage directly affect depression or does depression occur because the miscarriage had a negative effect on marital relations?

The lastv two research questions involve mediator and moderator variables, which are variables of interest to the researcher (i.e., tht are not extraneous) and that affect the relationship between the independent and dependent variables A moderator variable is a variable that affects the strength or direction of an association between the independent and dependent variable

The independent variable said to interact with the moderator: the independent variable´s relationship with the dependent variable is stronger or weaker for different values of the moderator variable In the preceding example, it might be that the risk of depression after a miscarriage is low among women who had previously given birth (i.e., when the moderating variable parity is greater than 0)

When all women are considered together without taking parity into account, the relationship between experiencing a miscarriage (the independent variable) and levels of depression (the dependent variable) might appear moderate Therefore identifying parity as a key moderator is important in understanding when to expect a relationship between miscarriage and depression and this understanding has clinical relevance

Research questions that involve mediator variables concern the identification of causal pathways A mediator variable is a variable that intervenes between independent and dependent variable and helps to explain why the relationship exists We are asking whether depression levels among women who have experienced a miscarriage are influenced by the negative effect of the misscarriage on marital relations Please read example page 77

Research questions in qualitative studies
Researchers in the various qualitative traditions vary in their conceptualization of what types of questions are important Grounded theory researchers are likely to ask process questions, phenomenologists tend to ask meaning questions and ethnographers generally ask descriptive questions about cultures

Example of a research question from a phenomenological study: What is the lived experience of caring for a family member with Alzheimer´s disease at home? Not all qualitative studies are rooted in a specific research tradition Many researchers use naturalistics methods to describe or explore phenomens without focuing on cultures, meaning or social processes Please read example page 77

In qualitative studies, research questions sometimes evolve (To develop or achieve gradually) over the course of the study The researcher begins with a focus that defines the general boundaries of the inquiry Flexible that the question can be modified as new infomation makes it relevant to do so

Research Hypotheses A hypothesis is a prediction about the relationship between two or more variables A hypothesis translates a quantitative research question into a precise prediction of expected outcomes In qualitative studies, researchers do not begin with a hypothesis, in part because there is too little known about the topic to justify a hypothesis and in part because qualitative researchers want the inquiry to be guided by participants viewpoints rather than by their own

Function of hypotheses in quantative research
Research questions, are usually queries (are the primary mechanism for retrieving information from a database) about relationships between variables Hypotheses are proposed solution or answers to these queries For instance, the research question might ask: does history of sexual abuse in childhood affect the development of irritable bowel syndrome in women? The researcher might predict the following: women who were sexually abused in childhood have a higher incidence of irritable bowel syndrome than women who were not

Hypothesis sometimes follow directly from a theoretical framework Scientist reason from theories to hypotheses and test those hypotheses in the real world The validity of theory is never examined directly It is through hypothesis testing that the worth of a theory can be evaluated

Elderly patients who are praised (reinforced) by nursing personnel for self-feeding require less assistance in feeding than patients who are not praised Pediatric patients who are given a reward (e.g a baloon or permission to watch television) when they cooperate during nursing procedures tend to be more obliging (happy to complete) during those procedures than nonrewarded peers

Characteristics of testable hypotheses
Expected relationship between the independent variable the presumed cause and the dependent variable the presumed effect or outcome within a population Please read example page 78 When the prediction does not express an anticipated relationship, it cannot be tested If hypothesis lack a phrase such as more than, less than, greater than , different than, related to, associated with , it is not amenable (willing to comply) to testing in a quentitative study The most defencible hypothesis follow from previous research findings or are deduced from the theory If new araes turn to logical reasoning or personal experience to justify the predictions

The derivation of hypotheses
An inductive hypotheses is a generalized based on observed relationships Researcher observe certain patterns, trends or associations among phenomena and then use the observations as a basis for prediction Related litterature should be examined to learn what is already known on a topic, but an important source for inductive hypothesis is personal experience combined with intuition and critical analysis Read example page 79

The derivation of hypotheses
Another mechanism for deriving hypothesis is through deduction Deuctive hypothesis have as a starting point theories that are applied to particular situations all human begin have red and white blood cells” ”Ali is human being” ” therefore , Ali has red and white blood cells”

Wording of hypothesis Simple versus complex hypotheses
Simple: expresses an expeted relationship between one independent and one dependent variable A complex a prediction of a relationship between two or more independent variables and or two or more dependent variable Multivariate hypotheses involve multiple variables Hypothesis should be worded in the present tense Researcher make predictions about the relationship that exist in the population and not just about the relationship that will be revealed in a particular sample please read page 81, 82

Wording of hypothesis Directionl versus nondirectional hypotheses
Directional, is one that specifies not only the existence but the expected direction of the relationship between variables Older patient are at greater risk of falling than younger ones A nondirectional hypothesis these hypothesis state the prediction that apatient´s age and the risk of falling are related, they do not stipulate (specify as a condition) whether the researcher think that older or youger patients are at great risk

Research versus null hypothesis
Research hypothesis,also refered to as (substantive, declarative and scientific hypotheses) are statements of expected relationships between variables Null hypothesis, there is no relationship between the independent and dependent variables

Hypothesis testing Through statistics whether their hypothesis have a high probability of being correct Hypothesis are never proved through hypotheis testing rather they are accepted or supported Please read page 84

Research problems, Research Questions, Research Hypotheses

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