1. Psychology: From Inquiry to Understanding 2/e
Scott O. Lilienfeld Steven Jay Lynn Laura Namy
Nancy J. Woolf
Prepared by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Bahar Baştuğ
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2. Emotion and Motivation: What Moves Us
Chapter Eleven
Emotion and Motivation: What Moves Us
AFFECT: NON CONSCIOUS EXPERIENCE THE MOST ABSTRACT ONE. CANNOT BE FULLY REALISED IN LANGUAGE.
EMOTION: IS A PROJECTION OR DISPLAY OF A FEELING.
FEELING: BİR DUYUŞ, SENSATION

3. Lecture Preview Theories of emotion Nonverbal expression of emotion
Happiness and self-esteem
Motivation
Attraction, love, and hate

4. Case: Elliot is normal in appearance
Case: Elliot is normal in appearance. He has recovered from brain surgery due to frontal lobe tumor. He is similar to Phineas Gage (Chp.3). Antonio Damassio studied him in depth and realized that Elliot displayed no emotional response.
Emotion and reason aren’t necessarily opposites. Emotion is often the servant of reason. Without feelings, we have insufficient basis for rational decisions.

5. Popular wisdom teaches us that many emotions, especially negative ones, are bad for us. Emotions such angry, guilty, ashamed, or sad are unhealthy, be self-destructive even “toxic.” “Everything in moderation” Many emotions—even negative ones—are crucial to our survival.

6. Emotions
Mental states or feelings associated with our evaluation of our experiences.
Several theories on what causes our emotions:
Discrete emotions theory
Cognitive theories
LO 11.1

7. Discrete Emotions Theory:Emotions as evolved expressions
Humans experience a small number of distinct emotions, even if they combine in complex ways.
Emotions have biological roots and serve evolutionary functions.
Brain’s cortex (thinking) evolved later than the limbic system (emotion). Our emotions precede our thoughts about them (Zajonc, 1984, 2000).
EVOLVE; EVRİLMEK

8. SUPPORT FOR AN EVOLUTIONARY BASIS OF EMOTIONS.
Some emotional expressions may be by-products of innate motor programs. Newborns smile spontaneously during REM sleep. emotion of disgust (in Latin “bad taste”) I’m asking you to swallow a piece of food that includes a dried-up cockroach. You’d wrinkle your nose, contract your mouth, stick out your tongue, turn your head slightly to one side, and close your eyes.
REM SLEEP IS THE SLEEP STAGE DURING WHICH MOST VIVID DREAMING OCCURS.

9. People have recognized the facial reaction of disgust for centuries
People have recognized the facial reaction of disgust for centuries. This is a photograph from Charles Darwin’s book on the expression of emotions, published in 1872.

10. Andrea de Jorio (1832) Napoliten jestler
1. sus
2. sıkıntı
3. güzellik
4. açlık
5. alay
6. yorgunluk
7. delisin
8. yutturamazsın
9. samimiyetsizlik
10. kurnazlık, hile
İTALYAN BİLİM ADAMI GÜNEY AVRUPALILARIN BEDEN DİLLERİNİ KULLANMALARI KONUSUNDA BİLGİ VERMEKTE.
SUS %82 TÜRKİYE’DE AYNI ANLAMDA.
2. DÜŞÜNMEK, DİNLEMEK,
5 ALAY BİZDE NANİK
6 YORGUNLUK BİZDE ÇOK FARKLI ANLAMLARDA ALGILANMIŞ, TİK, UTANGAÇLIK
7 DELİSİN BİZDE EL BAŞA DEĞMEDEN YANINDA..

11. This set of reactions is evolutionarily adaptive.
Other emotions similarly prepare us for biologically important actions. When we’re afraid, our eyes open wide, allowing us to better see potential dangers. When we’re angry, our teeth and fists often become clenched, readying us to bite and fight.
Many mammals display similar emotional reactions during similar social behaviors. These reactions share the same evolutionary origins.
FIST: YUMRUK

12. Discrete Emotions Theory CULTURE AND EMOTION.
If evolutionary in nature, emotions should be universal. They should be the same meaning across cultures.
Good support for seven primary emotions
Happiness, disgust, fear, sadness, surprise, anger, and contempt.
“Pride” may also be a primary emotion.
EKMAN YENİ GİNE’DE YAŞAYAN YERLİLERE TERCÜMAN ARACILIĞIYLA HİKAYELER OKUYUP FOTOĞRAFLAR GÖSTEREREK DUYGULARLA HİKAYELERİ MATCH ETMELERİNİ İSTEMİŞ.
CONTEMPT: HOR GÖRME

13. Six of the seven primary emotions identified by Paul Ekman and his colleagues. Can you match each face to the corresponding emotions of anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise?

14. These combine to form secondary emotions:
Certain primary emotions are easier to detect than others. Happiness tends to be the most easily recognized emotion.
Negative emotions are more difficult to recognize; many subjects confuse disgust with anger, anger with fear, and fear with surprise.
These combine to form secondary emotions:
“alarm” seems to be a mixture of fear and surprise
“hatred” seems to be a mixture of anger and disgust
HATRED: NEFRET

15. Cultural Differences in Expression.
Certain emotions exist across most or all cultures, but cultures don’t express emotions in the same ways. Cultures differ in display rules, how and when to express emotion. «Boys don’t cry, girls can cry.» Culture doesn’t influence emotion itself, but instead its overt expression.
BİR DENEYDE AMERİKALI VE JAPON ÖĞRENCİLERE FİLMLER GÖSTERİP FARKINDA OLMADIKLARI BİÇİMDE VİDEOYA KAYDETMİŞLER. HER İKİ GRUBA DA HEM NÖTRAL HEM DE KANLI FİLM SAHNELERİ GÖSTERİLMİŞ. HER İKİ GRUP DA NÖTR FİLME ÇOK AZ DUYGUSAL YAKLAŞIRKEN KANLI SAHNEDE KORKU, TİKSİNTİ GÖSTERMİŞLER. ANCAK DAHA SONRA ODAYA YAŞLI BİR ARAŞTIRMACI GİRDİĞİNDE OTORİTE FİGÜRÜNE SAYGIDAN DOLAYI JAPONLARIN YÜZ İFADESİ SANKİ NEŞELİ BİR FİLM SEYREDİYORMUŞ GİBİ DEĞİŞMİŞ.

16. Emotions and Physiology
We are able to differentiate some primary emotions physiologically.
Heart rate increases more with negative emotions.
Digestive system slows down with fear.
Brain imaging data provide that fear, disgust, and anger tend to show different patterns of brain activation. Fear is specific to the amygdala, disgust to the insula (in the limbic system), and anger to a region of the frontal cortex .
Happy and sad look same in brain scans.
Multiple brain regions active in all emotions.
NEGATIVE EMOTIONS SUCH AS FEAR & ANGER.

17. Real vs Fake Emotions
Certain components of facial expression allow us to distinguish when someone is showing a genuine emotion.
Duchenne (real) vs Pan Am (fake) smiles
GERÇEK GÜLMEYİ FARK EDEN NÖROLOĞUN ADI İLE DUCHENNE DENMİŞ. PAN AM HAVAYOLLARI TÜM ÇALIŞANLARINI FAKE GÜLÜMSEMEYE ZORLAMIŞ.

18. Psychologist Paul Ekman, shown here, is demonstrating two smiles: a Duchenne (genuine) smile and a non-Duchenne smile. Which is the Duchenne smile?
GERÇEK GÜLMEDE AĞZIN KÖŞESİ YUKARIYA DOĞRU KIVRILIR, GÖZKAPAKLARI DÜŞER, GÖZLERİN KÖŞESİNDE KIRIŞIKLIKLAR OLUR. FAKE GÜLÜMSEMEDE AĞIZ OYNAR, AMA GÖZLER DE DEĞİŞİKLİK OLMAZ.

19. In sum, discrete emotions theorists emphasize the biological basis of emotion. For them, emotions are innate motor programs triggered by certain stimuli, and emotional reactions to these stimuli come before interpretation of them.

20. Cognitive Theories of Emotion: Think first, feel later
Posit that emotions are products of thinking.
What we feel in response to a situation is determined by how we interpret it.
There are no discrete emotions, there are as many different emotions as there are kinds of thoughts.
Earliest theories were James-Lange and Cannon-Bard.
LO 11.1

21. Cognitive Theories of Emotion
W. James & Lange claimed the theory at the same time, unaware of each other. James-Lange theory proposes that emotions result from our interpretations of our bodily reactions to stimuli.
Before them, it used to know that our fear causes us to run away. We fear>>>>> we run away
For James-Lange, our running away causes us to be afraid. We’re afraid because we run away. We run away>>>>we fear.
W. JAMES AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST, LANGE DANISH RESEARCHER

22. LO 11.1

23. Cognitive Theories of Emotion
Damasio’s somatic marker theory says that we use our “gut reactions” to determine how we should act.
It’s possible that somatic markers are helpful to us when making decisions. But some findings suggest that somatic markers aren’t necessary for wise choices, even if they sometimes give us a bit of extra guidance.
GUT REACTIONS: İÇİMDEN BİR SES

24. Cognitive Theories of Emotion
Cannon-Bard theory says an emotion-provoking event leads simultaneously to an emotional and bodily reaction. Thalamus triggers emotion & bodily reactions.
When we see a bear in the forest, the sight of bear triggers fear and running at the same time.

25. Cognitive Theories of Emotion
Later researcher showed that different regions of limbic system such as the hypothalamus & the amygdala, also play key roles in emotion.

26. Cognitive Theories of Emotion
Two-factor theory
Schachter and Singer (1962) agreed with James-Lange that our cognitive interpretations of our bodily reactions play a role in emotions, but disagreed with James and Lange that these bodily reactions are sufficient for emotion. According to their theory, two psychological events are required to produce an emotion:
1. After encountering an event, we experience an undifferentiated state of arousal, that is alertness.

27. Cognitive Theories of Emotion
2. We seek to explain the source of this autonomic arousal. Once we attribute the arousal to an occurrence, we experience an emotion. Once we figure out what’s making us aroused, we “label” that arousal with an emotion. Emotions are the explanations we attach to our arousal.
Two-factor theory states that emotions are produced by an undifferentiated arousal (alertness), with an attribution of that arousal.
SCHACHTER VE SİNGER YAPTIKLARI ÇALIŞMADA KATILIMCILARI İKİ GRUBA AYIRIYORLAR, BİR GRUBA YENİ BİR VİTAMİNİN ETKİLİLİĞİNİ DENEDİKLERİNİ SÖYLÜYORLAR AMA GERÇEKTE ADRENALİN VERİYORLAR DİĞER GRUBA PLACEBO VERİYORLAR. TAM VERİŞ ANINDA TEKRAR İKİ AYRI DURUM DAHA YARATIYORLAR. DURUMA BLİND OLAN BİR YARDIMCI BİR GRUBA ENVANTERLERİ DOLDURURURKEN MUTLU BİR BİÇİMDE DAVRANIYOR, DİĞER GRUBA KIZGIN BİR BİÇİMDE DAVRANIYOR. ADRENALİN ALAN GRUPLARDA MUTLU KİŞİYE MARUZ KALANLAR MUTLU OLDUKLARINI BİLDİRİRKEN KIZGIN KİŞİYE MARUZ KALANLAR KIZGIN OLDUKLARINI BİLDİRİYORLAR.
BAŞKA BİR ÇALIŞMADA BİR SURVEYE KATILANLARA HERHANGİ BİR DURUMDA GEREKİR DİYE KADIN UYGULAMACI TELEFON NUMARASINI VERİYOR BUNU SAĞLAM BİR KÖPRÜ ÜZERİNDE YA DA SALLANAN BİR KÖPRÜ ÜZERİNDE YAPIYOR. SALLANAN KÖPRÜ ÜZERİNDE DENEYE KATILAN ERKEKLERİN BÜYÜK KISMI TELEFON NUMARASINI ARARKEN DİĞER GRUPTAN DAHA AZ KİŞİ ARIYOR. AROUSAL OLMA HALİ ROMANTİK DUYGULARI TETİKLEMİŞ OLABİLİR DENİYOR.

28. SUMMARY
Discrete emotions theory: our emotional reactions are shaped in part by natural selection and that these reactions serve adaptive functions. Cognitive theory: our thinking influences our emotions in significant ways. James-Lange and somatic marker theories: our inferences concerning our bodily reactions can influence our emotional states. Two-factor theory: physiological arousal plays a key role in the intensity of our emotional experiences.

29. Unconscious Influences on Emotion
Variables outside our awareness that can affect our feelings.
Automatic Generation Of Emotion
Mere exposure effect
Facial feedback hypothesis

30. Unconscious Influences on Emotion
Automatic Generation Of Emotion: Many emotional reactions may be generated automatically, like the knee-jerk reflex.
Subliminal exposure to faces displaying a specific emotion, like fear, happiness, or disgust, changes participants’ moods in the direction of that emotion.
KNEE-JERK REFLEX: DİZKAPAĞI REFLEKSİ
SUBLIMINAL: EŞİK ALTI, BİLİNÇALTI

31. Unconscious Influences on Emotion
Mere exposure effect
familiarity breeds contempt. The more often we’ve seen or heard something, the more we come to dislike it.????
Zajonc on the mere exposure effect suggests that the opposite is more common: that is, familiarity breeds comfort. The mere exposure effect refers to the fact that repeated exposure to a stimulus makes us more likely to feel favorably toward it.
FAMILIARITY BREEDS CONTEMPT: FAZLA MUHABBET TEZ AYRILIK GETİRİR.
MERE EXPOSURE EFFECT : SALT MARUZ KALMA ETKİSİ

32. Unconscious Influences on Emotion
Mere exposure effects may reflect habituation, a primitive form of learning. The more frequently we encounter a stimulus without anything bad happening, the more comfortable we feel in its presence. Alternatively, we may prefer things we find easier to process. The more often we experience something, the less effort it typically takes to comprehend it.

33. Unconscious Influences on Emotion
Facial feedback hypothesis Make a big smile and hold it for 15 seconds. How do you feel? Facial feedback hypothesis states that you are more likely to feel emotions that correspond to your facial features. First C Darwin, later R Zajonc (1980s). Like James-Lange, Zajonc argued that our emotions arise from our behavioral and physiological reactions. Unlike James and Lange, Zajonc viewed this process as purely biochemical and noncognitive, as involving no thinking. It operates outside of our awareness.

34. Nonverbal Expression of Emotion
Large amounts of emotionally expression is nonverbal.
Facial expressions, gestures, postures
Nonverbal leakage is often a powerful cue that we are trying to hide an emotion.
Very important to communication
NONVERBAL LEAKAGE : SÖZEL OLMAYAN SIZINTI, SIZMA.

35. Body Language and Gestures
Our postures can express a lot about our emotional states. Posture can communicate emotions, largely in unconscious ways. Downward posture> depr, upright posture> happiness
Sadness, excitement, anger

36. Gestures can express emotion, such as through illustrators or manipulators.
When talking, illustrators: gestures that emphasize speech, such as when we forcefully move our hands forward to make an important point.
When stressed out, manipulators: gestures in which one body part presses, bites or touches another body part, such as while waiting for an exam, we may bite our fingernails.

37. Emblems are more culture-specific gestures
OK sign, waving, thumbs up
Some of these gestures are consistent across cultures. Yet others differ across cultures.
BAZI KÜLTÜRLERDE ORTAK OLAN İŞARETLER, BAZI KÜLTÜRLERDE FARKLI ANLAMA GELEN İŞARETLER...

38. Personal Space Proxemics is the study of personal space.
Personal distance is correlated positively with emotional distance. The further we stand from a person, the less emotionally close we feel to him/her.
LO 11.3

39. For Hall, four levels of distance
Public (7.6m)
Social (3.7m)
Personal (1.2m)
Intimate (45 cm)
Moderate cultural and sex differences.
IN LATIN & MIDDLE EASTERN COUNTRIES, PERSONAL SPACE IS CLOSE. IN SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES, PERSONAL SPACE IS DISTANT. WOMEN PREFER CLOSER SPACE THAN MEN.

40. Lying and Lie Detection
We try to understand if others are being straight with us or putting us on. The best way of understanding whether someone is lying is to listen what he/she is saying. Dishonest statements contain fewer details.
Most people are not good at detecting lies.
BEING STRAIGHT WITH: BİRİSİNE DOĞRU SÖYLEMEK
PUT SOMEONE ON: BİRİNİ KEKLEMEK

41. Lying and Lie Detection
Experience in detection lies make people better at it. Practice is important.
Little or no correlation between people’s confidence in their ability to detect lies and their accuracy.
ARE YOU LYING? YOU’LL LIE. TWO LIES PER DAY. ENGLISH CONTAINS 112 DIFFERENT WORDS FOR LYING.

42. Polygraph
“Lie detector” test rests on the assumption of a Pinocchio response, a perfect physiological or behavioral indicator of lying. People’s body react whenever they lie.
Records autonomic activity. If the suspect’s autonomic activity after event-relevant questions is higher than irrelevant and control questions, he/she is «lier».
LO 11.4

43. The polygraph test assumes the existence of a Pinocchio response, a physiological reaction associated with lying. But does such a response exist?

44. Polygraph Yields high rates of false positives.
It’s biased against the innocent!
Some people exhibit physiological arousal when they don’t lie, and some people don’t exhibit physiological arousal when they do lie. It misclassifies innocent individuals as guilty.
Not admissible in most courts of law.
ADMISSIBLE: KABUL EDİLEBİLİR
IT’S AN “AROUSAL DETECTOR,” NOT A LIE DETECTOR.
BİRÇOK İNSAN ÇEŞİTLİ NEDENLERLE AROUSAL TEPKİSİ GÖSTERİR, ÖRNEĞİN İŞLEMEDİKLERİ BİR SUÇTAN ÖTÜRÜ TUTUKLANMA KORKUSUNDAN DOLAYI.

45. Psychopaths, who have low levels of guilt and fear, may be expert at beating the test. Truth serum: barbiturates, relaxing people and making them fall asleep. People can lie under the influence of truth serum, can’t tell the truth.

46. Other Lie Detection Methods
1.Guilty Knowledge Test, series of multiplechoice questions in which only one choice contains the object at the crime scene, and we measure his physiological responses following each choice. If the suspect consistently shows marked physiological responses to same objects, we can be sure that he probably committed the crime.
2. Brain fingerprinting, using imaging techniques, measures suspects’ brain waves following each item in GKT.
LO 11.4

47. Other Lie Detection Methods
3. Paper-and-pencil integrity tests, questionnaires that assess workers’ tendency to steal or cheat. There are some questions about history of stealing, attitudes toward stealing, perception of others’ honesty.
All have less than perfect records of detecting lies, some have high false-positive rates also.

48. Happiness & Self-Esteem: Positive Psychology
Subfield of psychology that emphasizes human strengths such as resilience, coping, satisfaction, love & happiness.
helps people to find ways of enhancing positive emotions (happiness) and builds psychologically healthy communities.
Attempts to help people incorporate “character strengths and virtues” in life, such as curiosity, love, gratitude.
VIRTUE: FAZİLET
GRATITUDE: ŞÜKRAN

49. May not benefit everyone (defensive pessimists)
May not benefit everyone (defensive pessimists). Defensive pessimists use the strategy of anticipating failure and compensating for this expectation by mentally overpreparing for negative outcomes.
«BİR ŞEYLERİN YOLUNDA GİTMEYECEĞİNİ DÜŞÜNÜRÜM»... «DOĞRU YAPACAĞIMDAN EMİN OLDUĞUMDA BİLE, EN KÖTÜSÜNÜ BEKLEYEREK BAŞLARIM» DİYENLER PERFORMANSLARINI ARTIRMAK İÇİN ÇOK ÇALIŞIRLAR.

50. What Happiness is Good For
Happiness may produce persistent physical and psychological benefits.
Happiness may serve adaptive functions. Broaden and build theory says happiness predisposes us to think more openly, allowing us to see the “big picture”. Broader thinking may let us to find new solutions to problems. When we’re happy, we see more of the world and seek out more opportunities.
180 RAHİBE 1930LARDAN BAŞLAYARAK 60 YIL BOYUNCA İZLENMİŞ, GÜNLÜKLERİNDE OLUMLU KELİMELER DAHA ÇOK OLANLARIN OLMAYANLARA GÖRE 10 YIL DAHA FAZLA YAŞADIĞI BULUNMUŞ.

51. Optimists vs pessimists:
Optimists tend to be happier in everyday life than pessimists. Optimists tend to pay more attention to threatening medical information and remember it better than pessimists. For this reason, optimists tend to live longer than pessimists.

52. What Makes Us Happy Many misconceptions abound
The prime determinant of happiness is what happens to us
Money makes us happy
Happiness declines in old age
LO 11.5

53. What Makes Us Happy Things that are related to happiness include
Being married
Having many friends
Graduating college
Being deeply religious
Political affiliation
Level of gratitude
Giving to others
Being in the midst of flow
LO 11.5

54. Forecasting Happiness
We are very bad at affective forecasting,- the ability to predict our own and others’ happiness- displaying a consistent durability bias: We believe that both good or bad moods will last longer than they do.
Our moods tend to adapt to external circumstances (hedonic treadmill). When something good happens, we feel better in the short time, we soon adapt to our positive life conditions.
AFFECTIVE FORECASTING IS PREDICTING OUR OWN AND OTHER’S HAPPINESS.
THE HAPPINESS OF WINNER OF LOTARY RETURNS BACK TO NORMAL IN A SHORT TIME.
BİR SINAVI GEÇEN BİRİSİNİN MUTLULUĞU KISA SÜREDE NORMALE DÖNER.
PEOPLE WITH SUBSTANCE ABUSE USE THE SUBSTANCE TO KEEP THE LEVEL OF HAPPINESS.

55. Forecasting Happiness
This hypothesis proposes that we begin life with a genetically influenced happiness “set point” from which we bounce up and down in response to shortterm life events, but rarely move for good. Our set points are different from each other. They change over time.

56. Self-Esteem A person’s evaluation of their worth.
Self-esteem is ++++ correlated with happiness, and correlated with loneliness.
Many pop psych books cite low self-esteem as the cause of all unhappiness.
No scientific evidence for this
Single variable explanation
Low relationship to success
«I’M SMART», «I’M BEAUTIFUL, HANDSOME».
THERE ARA A LOT OF CAUSES.

57. According to one study, there is a positive relationship with aggression and low self-esteem. But another view claims that high self-esteem positively related to aggression.

58. Realities of Self-Esteem
High self-esteem is associated with greater initiative, persistence and resilience in the face of stress.
Related to positive illusions, the tendency to perceive ourselves more positively than others do.
İnitiative: GİRİŞKENLİK
Persistence: iNATÇILIK
DO YOU HAVE LOW OR HIGH SELF ESTEEM? ARE YOU SUCCESSFUL, ARE YOU BEATIFUL?

59. Motivation
The drives – especially wants and needs – that move us in specific directions.
Two of the most powerful motivators are food and sex, «facts of life».
LO 11.7

60. Drive Reduction Theory
Theory proposing by Hull and Hebb that certain drives motivate us to act in ways that minimize aversive states. These drives are:
Hunger, thirst, and sexual frustration
Drives are important our survival and reproduction.
We are attempting to maintain a level of psychological homeostasis, that is equilibrium.
LO 11.7

61. When we’re hungry, we’re motivated to eat something, but if we eat so much, our brain warns us not to eat so much.
Strength of drives is affected by arousal.

62. Level of Arousal
According to the Yerkes-Dodson law, there’s an inverted U-shaped relation between arousal, on the one hand and mood and performance, on the other.
LO 11.7

63. According to the Yerkes-Dodson law, when we’re underaroused we experience “stimulus hunger,”: a drive for stimulation. We can satisfy stimulus hunger in different ways: listening to music, socializing with friends In a classic study of sensory deprivation in the 1950s and 1960s, volunteers entered isolation tanks for several hours and often created their own mental stimulation in this state of extreme underarousal. They began to see or hear things that weren’t there.
HALLUCINATIONS.

65. When Drives Conflict
While certain drives lead us to approach, others lead to avoidance. Certain drives generate tendencies toward approach, that is, a predisposition toward certain stimuli. In contrast, others generate tendencies toward avoidance, that is, a disposition away from certain stimuli. Approach and avoidance drives often conflict.
EXAMPLE FOR APPROACH-APPROACH: NOT ONLY I WANT TO GO TO THE THEATRE BUT ALSO I WANT TO STUDY TO THE EXAM AT HOME.
EXAMPLE FOR AVOIDANCE-AVOIDANCE: NEITHER I WANT TO STUDY NOR I WANT TO MAKE HOUSEWORKS.
EXAMPLE FOR APPROACH-AVOIDANCE: I WANT TO EAT ICECREAM, BUT I DON’T WANT TO BE SICK.

66. When Drives Conflict Can lead us to experience four conflicts
Approach-avoidance
Approach-approach
Avoidance-avoidance
Double approach-avoidance
LO 11.7

69. Motivation
Why do people continue to create another things when they have a masterpiece, like Mozart, Picasso, etc?
Incentive theories propose that we are often motivated by positive goals
Intrinsic (people are motivated by internal goals) vs extrinsic motivations (people are motivated by external goals)
INCENTIVE: ENCOURAGEMENT, TEŞVİK
TAKE PRESEDENCE OF: ÖNCELİKLİ OLMAK
AFTER GRADUATING IF YOU WANT TO BE EXPERT IN PSYCHOLOGY FOR YOUR OWN BEING SUCCESFULL FEEELING, THIS IS INTRINSIC MOTIVATION.
AFTER GRADUATING IF YOU WANT TO BE EXPERT IN PSYCHOLOGY FOR GAINING RESPECT FROM OTHERS, THIS IS EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION.

70. Children who are motivated to draw by the fun of it rather than by an outside reward have what kind of motivation?

71. Answer: Intrinsic

72. Contrast effect: Once we receive reinforcement for performing a behavior, we anticipate that reinforcement again.

73. Our Needs: Physical And Psychological Urges
Some needs take precedence over others.
H. Murray differentiated primary needs (biological necessities, like hunger and thirst) from secondary needs (psychological desires). He identified more than 20 secondary needs, such as need for achievement.

74. Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs,
We must satisfy our primary needs, such as physiological needs and needs for safety and security. Then, we can progress to more complex secondary needs, such as belongingness and love, self-esteem, and finally self-actualization: The drive to realize our full psychological potential
Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs,
SELF-ESTEEM: KENDİNE SAYGI, SAYGINLIK

75. For some people, such as artists, can change the priority of needs.

76. Hunger and Eating Billions of people suffer from hunger.
Hunger and thirst motivate us to acquire food and drink, which provide us with nutrients and energy needed to be active and alert, and maintain a properly functioning immune system.
LO 11.8

77. Person still report hunger when their stomachs are surgically removed.
It is simple that if we’re hungry, we eat, and if we feel full, we stop eating. But, a complex series of events is inside our bodies.
Person still report hunger when their stomachs are surgically removed.
The brain is the center for food cravings. Two areas of the hypothalamus play different roles in eating.
Lateral (initiating, feeding) and ventromedial (stopping, satiety) hypothalamus
VENTROMEDIAL HYPOTHALAMUS: ALT ORTA
SATIETY:DOYGUNLUK

78. Hormones also play a strong role
Ghrelin communicates with the hypothalamus to increase hunger
Cholecystokinin counteracts the effects of gherlin
Our bodies produce glucose from proteins, fats, and carbohydrates in the foods. The hypothalamus is in tune with changing levels of glucose, signaled by receptors for glucose in the liver and hypothalamus.

79. glucostatic theory: when our blood glucose levels drop, after we haven’t eaten for some time, hunger creates a drive to eat to restore the proper level of glucose.

80. Weight Gain and Obesity
In our history, we needed to stock up food for survival. But nowadays, people consume more calories than they need to ensure survival.

81. Weight Gain and Obesity
The more stored energy in fat cells, the more they produce a hormone called leptin. Leptin signals the hypothalamus and brain stem to reduce appetite and increase the amount of energy used. Obese people seem resistant to the effects of leptin.
Obese people think about food a lot and find the food especially rewarding. The taste, smell and thought of food can trigger the release of 5-HT. 5-HT activates the brain’s pleasure circle.
LO 11.8

82. Weight Gain and Obesity
We may have a set point that establishes a range of body fat and muscle mass we tend to maintain. When we eat too little and drop below our set point, regulatory mechanisms increase our appetite or decrease our metabolism. Our bodies defend against weight loss.
According to the set point hypothesis, an obese person has a biological predisposition. Obese may be born with more fat cells, with lower metabolic rates, or with less sensitivity to leptin than thin people.

83. Mixed research to support this hypothesis
Mixed research to support this hypothesis. Most of us can control and modify our weight, within limits, by staying active and eating a healthy diet.

84. Weight Gain and Obesity
Genes also play a role in obesity
.7-.9 correlation for identical twins fat mass if raised together, if raised apart, because they share the same general diet and lifestyle.
Adoption studies support for the role of genes. People’s body mass is correlated with their biological, but not adoptive, parents’ body mass.
Likely a combination of many different genes.
LO 11.8

85. Expectations and external cues’ role
Portion distortion and the unit bias.
the unit bias : a situation in which a suggested portion size tends to influence our choice as to how much to consume.
PEOPLE ATTRACT TO BUY LARGER PORTION BECAUSE OF LITTLE PRICE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LARGE AND SMALL PROTION. THIS IS EXAMPLE FOR UNIT BIAS.

86. To eat food on a smaller plate is doing so will make portions appear bigger and limit the amount we eat.
Stanley Schachter’s internal–external theory, relative to other people, people with obesity are motivated to eat more by external cues like portion size, as well as the taste, smell, and appearance of food, than by internal cues like a growling stomach or feelings of fullness.

87. Eating Disorders
Individuals with bulimia nervosa engage in recurrent binge eating, followed by efforts to minimize weight gain. bingeing—eating large amounts of highly caloric foods in brief periods of time—followed by purging—vomiting or other means of drastic weight loss, like frantic exercise or extreme dieting. After a binge, most people with bulimia feel guilt and anxiety over the loss of control. Purging: self-induced vomiting, laxatives or diet pills or excessive exercise.
LO 11.9

88. Most common eating disorder; affects 1-3% of US population.
Primarily female, report high levels of body dissatisfaction.
Many women with bulimia are perfectionists with low self-esteem, and have strong need for approval.

89. Twin studies claim that bulimia is affected by genetic factors
Twin studies claim that bulimia is affected by genetic factors. Yet, bulimia is also affected by sociocultural expectations concerning the ideal body image. According to media, we can see beauty with a slim female figure. In television programs, idealized images of women are common.

90. Eating Disorders
Anorexia nervosa is less common ( %) and more dangerous. It begins in adolescence, is more common in girls than boys.
Individuals tend to become emaciated, “fear of fatness,” have a distorted perception of their body size, often losing 25 – 50% of their body weight. With continued low weight, a loss of menstrual periods, hair loss, heart problems, life-threatening electrolyte imbalances, and fragile bones may result in.
Emaciate: bir deri bir kemik kalmak

91. More culturally and historically universal than bulimia.

92. Sexual Motivation
Sexual desire (libido) is a wish or craving for sexual activity and sexual pleasure, is influenced by genes, biology, and social and cultural factors.
The sex hormone testosterone can sometimes enhance sexual interest.
Serotonin and dopamine appear to play a role. High 5-HT level is associated with low sexual desire.
Males desire sex more frequently, women experience more variability in their sex drive.
LO 11.10

93. In 1954, William Masters and Virginia Johnson investigated of sexual desire and the human sexual response in their lab by technical equipment. Their observations reported that the basic sexual arousal cycle was the same for men and women.

94. Human Sexual Response Sexual response cycle contains four phases:
Excitement phase: people experience sexual pleasure and start to notice physiological changes. Depr and anx, being tired or ill, resentment are related to low sexual desire.
Plateau phase: sexual tension occures.
Orgasm (climax) phase: sexual pleasure and physical changes peak
Resolution phase: people feel relax and well being.
LO 11.10

95. Masters and Johnson’s study focused on more physiological aspects of sexual desire, not feeling. People experience more frequent orgasms when they love their partner.

96. Effects on Sexual Behavior
As people age, frequency of sex decreases, but satisfaction does not.
Social norms help shape the way people express sexual desire.
Kissing in Western cultures
Biting off eyebrows in Apinaly tribe of Brazil.
Although American people disapprove of premarital sex (41 percent), some studies show that the prevalence of premarital sex is high in both men (85%) and women (80%).
AFRİKALI BİR KABİLEDE ÖPÜŞME OLMADIĞI İÇİN İLK KEZ ÖPÜŞENLERİ GÖRDÜKLERİNDE «BİRBİRLERİNİn TÜKRÜKLERİNİ YİYORLAR» DEMİŞLER.

97. Sexual Orientation
Homosexuality develop in all cultures and have done so since the recorded history. Homosexual behavior has been documented in over 450 species. People differ in their sexual orientation or interest in same (homosexual), opposite (heterosexual), or
both (bisexual) sex sexual partners. The sexual orientation isn’t the same as sexual activity.

98. Sexual Orientation
Famous Kinsey (1950) report warmed against categorizing people as heterosexual or homosexual, but “as individuals who have had certain amounts of homosexual experience and certain amounts of heterosexual experience.
People also differ in how they think and feel about their homosexuality. Many people who engage in occasional homosexual activities don’t view themselves as gay.

99. Sexual Orientation
Approximately 2.8% of males and 1.4% of females identify themselves as gay, lesbian, or bisexual.
There is a stereotype that one person in a gay relationship adopts a masculine role, whereas the other adopts a feminine role, but it isn’t true.
The other myth is that gay individuals are unappropriate to be parent, but homosexual or heterosexual individuals don’t differ in parenting.
LO 11.11

100. Sexual Orientation
It’s possible to change the sexual orientation of gay men and women who wish to become heterosexual. In a study, 200 people who were in sexual reorientation therapy changed from a predominantly homosexual to heterosexual orientation for a five-year period or longer.
But sexual reorientation therapies claimed that homosexuality is a disease that requires a cure. And prior to 1973, APA listed homosexuality as mental disorder. For this reason, homosexual individual might have been changed sexual orientation.

101. Sexual Orientation
Gay men and women report high rates of anxiety and depr, but this doesn’t mean that homosexuality itself is a disease. The reason of gay individuals’ psychological problems could be social oppression and intolerance of their lifestyles. APA sees same-sex attraction as a normal variation of human sexuality, and does not support use of therapy to change orientations

102. Sexual Orientation
Many homosexual individual say that they’ve felt different from others for as long as they can remember, it’s likely that biological differences are present even before birth.
Evidence from twin studies show that genes influence sexual orientation.
LO 11.11

103. Sexual Orientation
Gay men reported that they were feminine boys and lesbians that they were masculine girls. A potential genetic influence on childhood gender nonconformity. For Bem’s exotic becomes erotic theory, childhood gender nonconformity plays an important role in homosexuality.
Prenatal exposure to androgens has been implicated in sexual orientation.
ANDROGEN IS A HORMON WHICH IS RELEASED IN BOTH MEN AND WOMEN DURING FETUS STAGE.

104. Sexual Orientation
Possible influence of regions in the hypothalamus on orientation.
Larger corpus callosum in homosexuals.
Sexual orientation is most likely a complex interaction of genetic, biological, social, and cultural factors.
LO 11.11

105. Interpersonal Attraction
Influenced by a number of social factors:
Proximity and nearness
The more similar, the more likely to be attacted
Reciprocity
Level of physical attraction
Yedi milyarın içinde nasıl iki kişi birbirini bulabiliyor?

106. PROXIMITY: WHEN NEAR BECOMES DEAR: Physical nearness—or proximity—affords the opportunity for relationship formation.
SIMILARITY: LIKE ATTRACTS LIKE. the extent to which we have things in common with others. “Birds of a feather flock together”
“Opposites attract.”??????
Actually we can see that if there are similarities on habits (art, music, food preferences, educational level, physical attractiveness, or values) we’re attracted to people who are similar to us.
TENCERE YUVARLANMIŞ KAPAĞINI BULMUŞ; HACI HACIYI MEKKE'DE, HOCA HOCAYI TEKKE'DE, DELİ DELİYİ DAKKADA BULURMUŞ.

108. RECIPROCITY: Liking causes liking, and revealing personal information causes disclosure. When we believe people like us, we’re tend to feel attracted to them. PHYSICAL ATTRACTION:

109. Sex Differences in Attractions
According to a study conducted different countries, males place more emphasis on looks and younger mates, women on financial resources and older mates.
Both place a premium on intelligence, dependability, and kindness.
Evolutionary vs social role models of explanation
EVOLUTIONARY MODEL ERKEKLER ÇOK SPERM ÜRETİRLER VE UZUN Bİ RYOLCULUĞUN SONUNDA SPERM DÖLLEYECEK BİR YUMURTA BULUR, BU YÜZDEN ONLA RİÇİN ÖNEMLİ OLAN PHYSICA ATTRACTIVENESS AND FERTILITY. KADINLAR AYDA SADECE Bİ RYUMURTA ÜRETTİĞİ İÇİN SEÇİCİ OLMALARI GEREKİR.
FOR SOCIAL ROLE MODEL, HER NE KADAR BİYOLOJİK FAKTÖRLER YANI NATURE KADIN VE ERKEKLERİN ROLLERİNİ VE EŞ SEÇİMLERİNİ BELİRLESE DE NURTURE EŞ SEÇİMİNDE ROLLERİMİZİ VE TERCİHLERİMİZİ ŞEKİLLENDİRİR.

110. What is Attractive?
Cross culturally, men and women tend to agree on who is and is not attractive.
Men like hip-to-waist ratios around .7, females like higher ones.
There are, however cultural preferences for things like body size.

111. “Just Average”
In a study, the more “average” a face is, the more highly rated it is as attractive. Because avarage faces are symmetrical.
More symmetrical, but may also indicate a general preference for more familiar stimuli.
People don’t prefer only average faces, but we tend to choise average animals and objects, like cars and watches.
LO 11.12

112. Love Theorists don’t agree on the types of love.
Hatfield and Rapson’s passionate and companionate love. Romantic relationships tend to progress over time from passionate to companionate love.
Sternberg’s triangular theory of love and three major elements
passionate : tutkulu
companionate love: arkadaşça

113. LO 11.13

114. intimacy (“I feel really close to this person”);
passion (“I’m crazy about this person”);
(3) commitment (“I really want to stay with this person”).

115. Hate Sternberg sees hate as consisting of
Negation of intimacy (“I would never want to get close to these people”)
Passion (“I absolutely and positively despise these people”)
Commitment (“I’m determined to stop or harm these people”).
Combinations of these lead to types of hatred
“Burning hatred” is high on all three.
LO 11.13

116. Propaganda is important in hate
Propaganda is important in hate. People who hate other groups frequently refer to them with terms that reinforce perceptions of disgust, like vermin, pigs, or scum. Doing so probably makes it easier for us to hate them.
Knowing that “there’s good and bad in everyone,” can contribute us to cope with our enemies.