1. Theories of Motivation Hunger Motivation Eating Disorders Intro Psych Module 26 Mar 31-Apr 5, 2010 Class #27-29

2. Motivation  The underlying processes that initiate, direct and sustain behavior in order to satisfy physiological and psychological needs or wants

3. Theories of Motivation  Instinct Theory  Drive Reduction Theory  Arousal Theory Optimal Level Hypothesis  Incentive Theory

4. Instinct Theory  Instinct Complex unlearned response triggered by a stimulus or complex stimulus  Do humans have instincts? Early Darwinian Theory (1800’s) proposed the idea of instinct, arising from genetic endowment William James (1890) proposed an instinct theory in humans  Instincts were goal directed predispositions to behavior

5. Instinct Theory  Paradox in Psychology: As others were showing that animal behavior could be modified by learning (Thorndike), James was proposing that much of human behavior was unlearned  William McDougall (1908) followed… Suggested their were 18 instincts

6. Instinct Theory  McDougall (1908) theorized that motivated behaviors are instinctual: Unlearned Uniform in expression (do not change with practice) Universal (all members of a species show the same behavior)

7. Too many limitations…  By 1924 instinct theory was becoming obsolete as there were several criticisms: Too many instincts  Researchers came up with 5759 of them Logic was circular  i.e. the only evidence that an instinct exists was the behavior it supposedly explained  He’s an “overachiever” because he’s “hard-working”  She’s “hard-working” because she’s an “overachiever” Just meaningless labels with no explanations

8. Drive Reduction Theory (Hull, 1943)  Supporters of this theory believe that when a need requires satisfaction, it produces drives These are tensions that energize behavior in order to satisfy a need  Thirst and hunger are, for instance, drives for satisfying the needs of eating and drinking, respectively

9. Drive Reduction Theory  Drives have been generally established as primary and secondary… Primary drives satisfy biological needs and must be fulfilled in order to survive Homeostasis is the motivational phenomenon for primary drives that preserves our internal equilibrium. This is true, for example, for hunger or thirst Secondary drives satisfy needs that are not crucial to a person's life

10. Criticism  Critics felt that this theory was inadequate in explaining secondary drives

11. Arousal Theories  Optimal Level Hypothesis

12. Optimum Arousal Theory: Hebb (1955) and Zuckerman (1984)  This theory argues that we all have optimal levels of stimulation that we try to maintain…  Optimal Level Hypothesis we seek an optimal level of arousal too little stimulation, we seek an increase too much, we seek to decrease

13. Eysenck (1967)  Extraversion- Introversion Introverts were over- aroused individuals therefore they try to keep stimulation to a minimum Extroverts were under- aroused individuals, therefore they tried to increase stimulation

14. Eysenck (1967)  Cortical Arousal Differences Eysenck suggests that the difference between introverts and extroverts depends on the ascending reticular activating system (ARAS)  Causes introverts to be “stimulus shy”  Causes extroverts to be “stimulus hungry”

15. Cortical Arousal Differences  Geen (1984) Introverts and extraverts choose different levels of stimulation, but equivalent in arousal under chosen stimulation  Extroverts chose to hear louder noises than introverts  After put in their chosen environment their HR’s are the same  This seems to suggest that being at their preferred level of stimulation results in the same overall level of arousal for both groups

16. Geen (1984)  Researcher tested four other groups: Introverts placed in environment that other introverts had chosen (II) Introverts placed in environment that extroverts had chosen (IE) Extroverts placed in environment that other extroverts had chosen (EE) Extroverts placed in environment that introverts had chosen (EI)

17. Geen (1984)  II = similar HR as free choice introverts  IE = higher HR than free choice introverts when forced to listen to extroverts’ noise  EE = similar HR as free choice extroverts  EI = lower HR than free choice extraverts when forced to listen to introverts’ noise

18. Geen (1984)  Performance on a learning task was also affected: Introverts did best in introvert-selected environment Extraverts did better in extravert-selected environment  Practical implications:  Roommates?  Mate Selection?

19. Does it explain the psychopathic behaviors???  Serial killer

20. Criticism of Optimum Arousal Theories  People differ greatly in the optimal level of arousal they seek… These theories do not explain why

21. Incentive Theory  Viewpoint on motivation that is different than instinct, drive, and arousal theories Suggests that behavior is pulled rather than pushed…  Emphasizes the role of environmental stimuli that can motivate behavior by pulling people toward them rather than pushing people to satisfy a need (as in the drive- reduction theory)  Suggesting that people act to obtain positive incentives and avoid negative incentives  Explains secondary drives much better than drive-reduction theory

22. Criticism  Some behaviors seem to be pushed as well

23. Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)  Born in Brooklyn, NY  His parents were uneducated Jewish immigrants from Russia  Hoping for the best for their children – they pushed them hard towards education  He became very lonely as a youth and found his refuge in books  To satisfy his parents, he entered law school at CCNY and then Cornell

24. Abraham Maslow  Against his parents wishes, he married his first cousin and moved with her to Wisconsin where he became interested in psychology and gets his BA in 1930, MA in 1931, and Ph.D. in 1934 at the Univ. of Wisconsin  In 1935, he returns to NY and works with Thorndike at Columbia and eventually begins teaching full- time at Brooklyn College and then becomes chair of psych department at Brandeis where he begins his crusade for humanistic psychology

25. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (1970)  Abraham Maslow proposed that there are five levels of motives, or needs, arranged in a hierarchy: Physiological Safety Belongingness and love Esteem Self-actualization  We must satisfy needs or motives low on the hierarchy before we are motivated to satisfy needs at the next level

26. Physiological Needs  Physiological needs are basic, instinctual needs for air, food, water, and sex, among others. These needs must be at least partially met in order to ascend the hierarchy.  These needs can also be arranged in their own hierarchy.

27. Safety Needs  Safety needs include things such as shelter, security, and protection from physical and emotional harm.

28. Belonging Needs  These needs are met by having meaningful relationships, such as significant others, friends and children

29. Esteem Needs  This level has two sub- levels  Low esteem needs are the needs for the respect of others – need for recognition, etc.  Higher esteem needs are the needs for self respect – to achieve, to be competent, to be independent, etc.

30. Self Actualization  Self actualization involves becoming the most complete person that you can be – your full potential

31. Criticisms  Some critics felt that it is possible to skip levels  Others felt that they could not be applied universally

32. Theories of Hunger Motivation What triggers our motivation to eat?  Internal Factors An empty stomach? Body Chemistry Hypothalamus Set Point Theory  External Factors Externality Hypothesis  Other Factors Emotion Habit Attention

33. Internal Factors  An empty stomach? Early researchers thought that hunger pangs were important - caused by contraction of stomach  Cannon and Washburn (1912) tested the hypothesis that the contraction of the stomach is the cue to start eating  Tested this by having Washburn swallow a balloon and measuring contractions of the stomach by looking at contractions of the balloon (changes in air pressure go out stomach via tube to measuring device)

34. An empty stomach?  Tsang (1938) Removed rats stomachs and attached their esophagus to their small intestine They still displayed actions associated with hunger

35. Body Chemistry  Blood Glucose This is a simple sugar used by most cells in the body for energy - most food ultimately gets converted to blood glucose  Decreasing blood glucose levels  sense of hunger  Insulin This is a hormone that increases the flow of glucose into body cells, diminishing the amount of glucose in the blood by converting it into stored fat  Decreasing blood glucose levels  sense of hunger

36. Body Chemistry  Glucagon This hormone helps convert stored energy supplies (stored fat) back into blood glucose Increasing blood glucose levels  hunger decreases

37. Lesions of Hypothalamus  The destruction or stimulation of the lateral and ventromedial areas causes animals to ravenously decrease or increase their weight See picture on page 375 for example of increase

38. Set Point Theory  Set point is the weight that your body wants to be… It is a self-regulatory system that maintains your body weight If you starve yourself the hypothalamus activates compensatory mechanisms, your metabolism slows so that energy stores are used more sparingly and the amount of insulin that is produced increases so that more of the food that you take in remains as fat (this makes it possible to maintain weight on a meager diet)

39. What triggers our motivation to eat?  External Incentives Rodin (1981)  Like Pavlov’s dogs people learn to salivate in anticipation of appealing foods  Externality Hypothesis (Schacter, 1978) Did research on obese humans They argue that the difference between obese and normal weight subjects is that the obese are overly responsive to external stimuli (cues for eating)

40. Externality Hypothesis  VMH-lesioned rats and obese humans are similar in interesting ways: Both are more "finicky" than controls. Both are less willing to work for food VMH-lesioned rats don't eat as much of a bad tasting food as do control rats Obese humans don't drink as much of a bad-tasting milk shake as do control humans  VMH-lesioned rats don't bar-press for food on "lean" schedules as readily as do the control rats  Obese humans eat fewer peanuts than do control humans if they have to shell them, but more if they don't have to do this work

41. Externality Hypothesis  These findings support Schacter's conclusion that both VMH-lesioned rats and obese humans are more sensitive to external cues related to food than to the internal cues provided by their bodies. Obese humans are more likely to eat more when they are misled into thinking it's lunchtime than are control humans - again evidence of the influence of external cues  Social Factor is another external cue Eating around others often increases food intake

42. Other Factors  Emotion Depressed people may eat too much or too little  Habit Meal time - ancient Romans only ate two meals a day. We eat three - if we miss a meal, we feel hungry at that meal time  Attention Awareness vs. non-awareness

43. Eating Disorders  Obesity  Anorexia Nervosa  Bulimia Nervosa

44. Obesity  Weight which is 20-40% above the normal standard for a person’s height (BMI over 30 kg/m2) Rates of obesity are climbing and have risen from 12 to 20 percent of the population since 1991. An ominous statistic which indicates that the epidemic of obesity may get even worse is that the percentage of children and adolescents who are obese has doubled in the last 20 years  Why is this happening?

45. Basal Metabolic Rate  Basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the amount of energy expended while at rest in a neutrally temperate environment, in the post-absorptive state (meaning that the digestive system is inactive, which requires about twelve hours of fasting in humans). If you've noticed that every year, it becomes harder to eat whatever you want and stay slim, you've also learnt that your BMR decreases as you age. Likewise, depriving yourself of food in hopes of losing weight also decreases your BMR, a foil to your intentions. M > W (more muscle) Exercise increases BMR

46. Obesity  Weight which is 20-40% above the normal standard for a person’s height  Rates of obesity are climbing and have risen from 12 to 20 percent of the population since 1991.  Why is this happening?

47. Obesity  Why do some people become seriously overweight? Emotional problems  Depression  Anxiety Sedentary lifestyle  Too much TV and not enough exercise Genetics  Higher set point

48. What factors help prevent obesity?  Preventing obesity must begin in childhood Breastfed children less obesity Encouraging children to exercise and eat healthy foods don’t use “special food” as a reward – Stanek et al. (1990) children tend to be more interested in a “forbidden food” –– Mennella et al. (2001)  Limiting television watching Problem with adult modeling, increase consumption of snacks low in nutrients and watching TV during meals increase consumption of salty snacks and pop and less fruit and vegetables – Goldberg et al. (2001) Many ads have low-nutrient beverages and sweets – Story and Faulkner (1990)

49. How is obesity treated?  Fad Diets Exaggerated claims based on false theories Potentially harmful  Weight Cycling Set point theory? Psychological ramification

53. Weight Cycling

54. Psychology of Weight Cycling

55. How is obesity treated?  Eating less and eating smarter Meals in US – much bigger portions than elsewhere  Physical Activity - Increasing exercise Activity and BMR- activity increases BMR Activity and appetite control  energy released from stores (plasma glucose normal)  digestive functions are suppressed setting short-term goals reminders or prompts making behavior fit into daily schedule/ routine Eating less

56. How is obesity treated?  Operant conditioning approaches Make small changes to behavior  Having the support of family members, and friends – social support  Other self-control approaches  Behavior and Attitude stimuli   behavior   consequence  Awareness of behavior why do I eat, when, where

57. Anorexia

58. Anorexia Nervosa  Anorexia Nervosa Self-starvation and severe weight loss Usually starts as an innocent diet that went out of control They eat less and exercise more Often they come from high-achieving or over- protective families At first, self-esteem was raised – “you look great”

59. Symptoms Of Inadequate Energy Intake  Amenorrhea  Cold hands/feet  Constipation  Dry skin/hair loss  Headaches  Fainting/dizziness  Lethargy  Anorexia  Concentration  Decisions  Irritability  Depression  Social withdrawal  Obsessiveness (food) Physical healthMental health

60. Anorexia Nervosa  Complications Hypothermia may result  Results when the body’s natural isolation fat stores become non-existent and the victim becomes cold all the time Some must be tube-fed to prevent death Some will die from heart failure

61. Anorexia Nervosa  Prognosis With individual, group, and family therapy there is a good chance for improvement and hopefully recovery Anti-depressants are often combined with these therapies It is a life-long process though

62. Anorexia Nervosa (pursuit of thinness )  Successful Weight Loss – Hallmark of Anorexia Defined as 15% below expected weight Intense fear of obesity and losing control over eating Anorexics show a relentless pursuit of thinness, often beginning with dieting  DSM-IV Subtypes of Anorexia Restricting subtype – Limit caloric intake via diet and fasting Binge-eating-purging subtype – About 50% of anorexics  Associated Features Most show marked disturbance in body image Most are comorbid for other psychological disorders Methods of weight loss can have severe life threatening medical consequences

63. Anorexia: Facts and Statistics  0.5-5% 15-19 year old females  Majority are female (90-95%) and white (> 95%), from middle-to-upper middle class families  Usually develops around age 13 or early adolescence  Tends to be more chronic and resistant to treatment than bulimia  3rd most common chronic illness in adolescents

65. Major Systems Affected  Metabolic Hypometabolism/ Refeeding Syndrome  Cardiovascular Arrhythmias  Musculoskeletal Osteoporosis  Reproductive Amenorrhea

66. Bulimia Nervosa (avoidance of obesity)  Associated Features Most are within 10% of target body weight Most are over concerned with body shape, fear gaining weight Most are comorbid for other psychological disorders Purging methods can result in severe medical problems

67. Bulimia Nervosa  Disorder characterized by repeated binge- purge episodes of overeating followed by vomiting or using a laxative  Again, mostly women in their early teens  These individuals can be thin, average in weight or even overweight – so this one is more likely to go unnoticed by family or friends

68. Bulimia Nervosa  Symptoms of Bulimia  Eating binges  Purging  Sore throat  Mouth and throat ulcers  Swollen salivary glands  Destruction of tooth enamel  Depression, obsessive-compulsive symptoms

69. Bulimia Nervosa  Prognosis With the long-term psychotherapy combined with group and family therapy the patient will likely improve Often, anti-depressants are combined with therapy Again, this is a life-long process

70. Bulimia: Facts and Statistics  Bulimia Majority are female, with onset around 16 to 19 years of age Lifetime prevalence is about 1.1% for females, 0.1% for males 5-10% of college women suffer from bulimia Tends to be chronic if left untreated

71. Signs And Symptoms Of Vomiting Or Laxative Abuse  Weight loss  Electrolyte disturbance K CO 2  Dental enamel erosion  Hypovolemia  Knuckle calluses  Guilt  Depression  Anxiety  Confusion Physical healthMental health

72. At-Risk Groups for both AN and BN  Adolescent females with low self-esteem  Gymnasts  Dancers (ballet)  Wrestlers  Runners  When thinness is related to success

73. AN & BN: Engaging Parents in Treatment  Developmental framework (child  adult)  Discuss blame, fault, guilt openly  Realignment of roles in family  Positive framing of family attributes  Future orientation  Authority to treat, and empowerment of, professionals comes from parents

74. Problems Addressed In Mental Health Treatment  Low Self-esteem  Distorted body-image  Dysfunctional coping behaviors and habits  Depression SSRIs for BN and weight recovered AN  Ineffective communication  Conflict resolution  Lack of assertiveness  Post-trauma recovery (sexual abuse, etc)

75. Indications for Hospitalization  Severe malnutrition: Weight for height <75%  Dehydration  Electrolyte disturbances  Cardiac dysrhythmia  Physiologic instability Severe bradycardia or hypotension Hypothermia Orthostatic pulse changes  http://www.adolescenthealth.org/html/eating_disorders.h tml http://www.adolescenthealth.org/html/eating_disorders.h tml

76. Indications for Hospitalization  Arrested growth and development  Failure of outpatient treatment  Acute food refusal  Uncontrollable bingeing and purging  Acute medical complication of malnutrition  Acute psychiatric emergencies  Comorbid diagnosis interfering with treatment (Fisher et al.,1995)

77. Eating Disorder, Not Otherwise Specified  All criteria for AN, except still menstruating  All criteria for AN, except normal weight  All criteria for BN, except frequency or duration  Compensatory weight control after small amounts of food  Chewing/spitting out, but not swallowing, large amounts of food  Binge eating disorder

78. Binge-Eating Disorder  Binge-Eating Disorder – Appendix of DSM-IV Experimental diagnostic category Engage in food binges, but do not engage in compensatory behaviors  Associated Features Many persons with binge-eating disorder are obese Most are older than bulimics and anorexics Show more psychopathology than obese people who do not binge Share similar concerns as anorexics and bulimics regarding shape and weight

79. Signs And Symptoms Of Binge Eating  Weight gain  Bloating  Fullness  Lethargy  Salivary gland enlargement  Guilt  Depression  Anxiety Physical healthMental health

80. How do biological factors lead to eating disorders?  Women who have close relative with an eating disorder are 2-3 times more likely to suffer from one  More likely to occur in both identical twins than fraternal twins (higher concordance)  Anorexa sufferers have higher levels of serotonin  Bulimia sufferers are less sensitive to serotonin

81. What psychological factors lead to eating disorders?  Cultural norms Thinness norm is portrayed in media

82. Brazilian model Ana Carolina Reston…this 21-year-old anorexic model reportedly weighed just 88 pounds

83. What psychological factors lead to eating disorders?  Family dynamics Families of women with eating disorders are particularly focused on weight and shape Families of anorexics have potentially dysfunctional dynamics Families of bulimics have more conflict, and less nurturance

84. What psychological factors lead to eating disorders?  Personality The “perfect child” expectation in families Anorexics: rigid, anxious, perfectionists, and obsessed with order and cleanliness Bulimics: depressed, anxious, lack clear sense of self-identity, have negative self-views

85. What approaches help prevent eating disorders?  Interventions specifically targeting women with poor body images can be effective

86. Weight Gain  Rate  1 lb/week, Target weight >85% average, if low...  70% of weight gain is lean body mass (muscle)  Must eat adequately to gain lean body mass   Lean body mass will result in Higher metabolism More energy Fewer symptoms  Cognitive-behavioral therapy is used to design programs for weight gain

87. “But, I’m Not Hungry”  Body burns calories throughout life  Appetite  need to eat  Eating Disorder  Appetite   If only respond to appetite, will not get enough energy  If eat on regular schedule, more likely to get energy  Higher energy fuel ensures greater likelihood of getting enough energy  Even if you’re not hungry, your body burns calories  Appetite  car’s gas gauge  Eating Disorder  broken gas gauge  If drive car with broken gas gauge can run out of gas  Fill car with gas based on miles driven & gas mileage  Fat has more energy than carbohydrate or protein and is a necessary body fuel Physiologic Fact Reframing for patient

88. Lingering issues…  Is obesity really unhealthy? “upper-body fat” is particularly bad  Can eating disorder prevention programs have dangerous effects? Eating disorder prevention programs can sometimes lead to an increase in disordered behavior Nova film, “Dying to be Thin” - emaciated women are triggering girls who want to be thin. Instead… Show the videos: “Body Talk”, or “Killing Us Softly”. Shows being able to express their body image and resist media messages.

89. Credits  Some slides in this presentation prepared with the asistance of the following websites: http://www.healthypotato.com/downloads/Glycemic_Index_8- 8-05.ppt http://www.healthypotato.com/downloads/Glycemic_Index_8- 8-05.ppt http://www2.una.edu/psychology/health/ch08%20obesity2.pp t#1 http://www2.una.edu/psychology/health/ch08%20obesity2.pp t#1