1. Sports in Society: Issues & Controversies
Chapter 9
Race and Ethnicity:
Are They Important in Sports?

2. It is widely believed that sports bring people together in ways that transcend racial and ethnic differences. But this is neither automatic nor customary.

3. Race =
a population of people who are believed to be naturally or biologically distinct from other populations.
Race depends on a classification system through which meanings are given to physical traits

4. Ethnicity =
a particular cultural heritage that is used to identify a category people.
An ethnic population =
a category of people regarded as socially distinct because they share a way of life, a collective history, and a sense of themselves as a people.

5. An ethnic minority =
a socially identified collection of people that suffers disadvantages due to systematic discrimination and has a strong sense of social togetherness based on their shared experiences of past and current discrimination.

6. Racial Ideology in History
Racial classification systems were developed as white Europeans explored and colonized the globe and found that there were physical differences between people
These systems were used to justify colonization, conversion, and even slavery and genocide
According to these systems, white skin was the standard, and dark skin was associated with intellectual inferiority and slowed development

7. Racial Ideology in the United States
A person’s humanity and moral worth came to be associated with skin color because:
Whites needed justification for political expansion
Whites sought to control blacks after the abolition of slavery
Scientists claimed to have proved the natural inferiority of “colored” people and the natural superiority of white Europeans.

8. The trouble with race and racial ideology
Research shows that external traits are not linked with patterns of internal differences
Race is a social construction that is based on social definitions and the meanings that people give to physical traits
Racial classification systems vary by culture and over time, and they are based on arbitrary distinctions related to continuous physical traits (see diagram)

9. Drawing Color Lines in Society
Racial Categories:
Drawing Color Lines in Society
Snow white
Midnight black
Skin color continuum
Continuous Traits = skin color, height, brain size, nose width, leg length, leg length ratio, # of fast twitch muscle fibers, etc.
Discrete Traits = blood type, sickle cell trait, etc.
Racial category lines can be drawn anywhere and everywhere on this continuum! We could draw 2 or 2000 lines. Our decisions are social decisions, not decisions based on biology. Some people draw many; others draw few; some reject lines.

10. “Race” in the United States
“Race” is a primitive but powerful classification system that has been used around the world
“Race” is based on a two-category classification system premised on the rule of hypo-descent or the “one-drop rule”
The “one-drop rule” was developed by white men to insure the “purity” of the “white race” and property control by white men
Mixed-race people challenge the validity of this socially influential way of defining race

11. Tiger Woods Disrupts Dominant Racial Ideology
“I am CABLINASIAN”
CA = Caucasian
BL = Black
IN = Indian
ASIAN = Asian

12. Racial Ideologies tend to support
Racism: attitudes, actions, and policies based on the belief that people in one racial category are inherently superior to people in one or more other categories.
Stereotypes: generalizations used to define and judge all individuals in a particular racial category.

13. Race, Racial Ideology, & Sports
Racial ideology encourages people to
“See” sport performances in “racialized” terms, i.e., in terms of skin color
Use whiteness as the taken-for-granted standard
Explain the success or failure of people with dark skin in racial terms
Do research designed to “discover” racial difference

14. Traditional Racial Ideology Used in Sports
The achievements of white athletes are due to:
Character
Culture
Organization
The achievements of black athletes are due to:
Biology
Natural physical abilities

15. In U.S. culture, many African American boys learn to take certain sports very seriously. Some develop a personal and cultural sense of destiny to excel at those sports.

16. A Sociological Hypothesis
Racial ideology + discrimination + sport opportunities
Beliefs about biological & cultural destiny +
Motivation to develop skills
OUTSTANDING ACHIEVEMENTS IN SPORTS

17. Racial ideology has influenced some -- not all -- whites to avoid sports in which blacks have a record of excellence.

18. Searching For ”Jumping Genes” in Black Bodies
This search is misleading because
It is based on oversimplified ideas about genes and how they work
It mistakenly assumes that jumping is a simple physical activity related to a single gene or interrelated set of genes
It ignores that jumping is a cultural performance as well as a physical act

19. This statement is laughable, but it is widely accepted when applied to dark-skinned athletes.
“Of course, white folks are good at this. After 500 years of colonizing the world by sea, they’ve been bred to have exceptional sailing genes!”

20. The Power of Racial Ideology
Black male students often have a difficult time shaking “athlete” labels based on racial ideology
Young people from all racial backgrounds may make choices influenced by racial ideology
In everyday life, racial ideology is integrally linked to ideas about gender and social class

21. Socially Constructing the Black Male Body: Racial Ideology in Action
In Euro-American history there has been
Strong fears of the physical power and prowess of (oppressed) black men
Powerful anxieties about the sexual appetites and capabilities of (angry) black men
Deep fascination with the movement of the black body
THEREFORE, the black male body =
valuable entertainment commodity

22. Racial Ideology, Gender, and “Cool Pose”
“Cool pose” is an interpersonal strategy used by men to cope with status threats and marginalization in everyday life
“Cool pose” is a presentation of self that communicates toughness, detachment, and control.
“Cool pose” keeps others at a distance and minimizes the chances of being disrespected.

23. Sport Participation among African Americans
The facts show that
Prior to the 1950s, sports in the U.S. were racially segregated
African Americans participate in a very limited range of sports
African Americans are clearly underrepresented in most sports

24. In the face of racial segregation, blacks could earn money by turning sports into entertainment that reaffirmed the racist stereotypes of whites. There was cultural space for blacks to entertain whites as clowns, but not to play sports with whites.

25. Most sport organizations are:
White-dominated
White-identified
White-centered
Therefore, success requires living up to standards set by whites and acting in ways that whites define as normal and appropriate. To defy these standards is to risk being defined as deviant, arrogant, undisciplined – as a problem.

26. Sport Participation among Native Americans
Native Americans comprise dozens of diverse cultural groups
Traditional Native American sports combine physical activities with ritual and ceremony
Native Americans often fear losing their culture when playing Euro-American sports
Widely accepted racial and ethnic stereotypes about Native Americans have restricted their access to sport participation

27. Identity Theft in Sports?
Using stereotypes of Native Americans as a basis for team names, logos, and mascots is a form of bigotry and identity theft, regardless of the intentions of those who do it
Are there any conditions under which a group or organizations could use the cultural and religious images of others for their own purposes?
What would happen if a school named their teams the Olympians and used the Olympic logo (5-Rings) as their logo?

28. Honoring “OUR” Chief Illiniwek
University of Illinois
Honor Chief at the club
The Chief car magnet
The Chief covers our baby
The Chief carries our diapers

29. “Honoring” Chief Osceola
at Florida State University
Wipe your face with his face
Sit on his face
Wipe your feet on his face
Relax on his face

30. Honoring of “OUR” chief
Your Christmas chief
Your cutting board chief
Hang your chief
Dry off with the chief towel

31. When bigotry is institutional- ized, it is very difficult to eliminate

32. Why have stereotypes about Native Americans persisted in U.S. sports?

33. Using Native American team names creates offensive media coverage

34. Sport Participation among Latinos
The experiences of Latino and Latina athletes have been ignored until recently
Stereotypes about physical abilities have influenced perceptions of Latino athletes
Latinos now make up over 25% of Major League Baseball players
Latinos often confront discrimination in school sports
Latinas have been overlooked due to faulty generalizations about gender and culture

35. Sport Participation among Asian Americans
The cultural heritage and histories of Asian Americans are very diverse
The sport participation patterns of Asian Americans vary with their immigration histories
Little is known about how the images of Asian American athletes are represented in the media and minds of people in the US

36. The Dynamics of Racial & Ethnic Relations in Sports
Race and ethnicity remain significant in sports today
Today’s challenges are not the ones faced in the past
It is a mistake to think that racial and ethnic issues disappear when desegregation occurs
The challenge of dealing with inter-group relations never disappears – it changes in terms of the issues that must be confronted

37. Eliminating Racial & Ethnic Exclusion in Sports (I)
Changes are most likely when
People with power and control benefit from desegregation
Individual performances can be measured precisely and objectively
Members of an entire team benefit from the achievements of teammates
(continued)

38. Eliminating Racial & Ethnic Exclusion in Sports (II)
Changes are most likely when
Superior performances do not lead to automatic promotions on teams
Team success does not depend on off-the-field socializing and friendships
Athletes have little power or authority in the organizational structure of a sport organization or team

39. After Desegregation: Managing Racial & Ethnic Diversity
Racial and Ethnic Diversity creates management challenges related to
Social dynamics on teams
Social dynamics among spectators
Marketing athletes, teams, and leagues
NOTE: The global recruitment of players insures that diversity issues will always exist in sports

40. “I love it when they line dance after they score a touchdown!”
Race & racial ideology may influence interpretations of on-the-field actions in sports
“I love it when they line dance after they score a touchdown!”

41. The Biggest Challenge: Integrating Positions of Power
Even when sport participation is racially and ethnically mixed, power in sports is not readily shared
The movement of minorities into coaching and administrative positions has been very slow
Social and legal pressures are still needed before power is fully shared

42. Nearly all top management positions to the major men’s pro sports are held by white men

43. Making sports inclusive is a major challenge.

44. Needed Changes:
Regular and direct confrontation of racial and ethnic issues by people in positions of power
A new vocabulary for dealing with new forms of racial and ethnic diversity in our lives
Training sessions dealing with practical problems and issues, not just feelings

45. Additional Topics
The following slides are for those who deal with “race and performance” issues in depth

46. Using Critical Theory to Ask Questions About Racial Classification Systems
Which classification systems are used?
Who uses them?
Why are some people so dedicated to using certain classification systems?
What are the consequences of usage?
Can negative consequences be minimized?
Can the systems be challenged?
What occurs when systems change?

47. The Racially “Natural Athlete”?
There is no evidence showing that skin color is related to physical traits that are essential for athletic excellence across sports or in any particular sport.

48. Research Summary (Genetic Factors & Athletic Performance)
Are there genetic differences between individuals? YES
Are genetic characteristics related to athletic excellence? YES
Could one gene account for success across a range of different sports? PROBABLY NOT
Might skin color genes & physical performance genes be connected? NO EVIDENCE

49. Research Summary (Continued)
Are physical development & the expression of skills in sports related to cultural definitions of skin color and race? DEFINITELY YES
Do cultural ideas about skin color & race influence the interpretation of and meaning given to the movement and achievements of athletes? DEFINITELY YES

50. Social Origins of Athletic Excellence
A cultural emphasis on achievement in activities that have special cultural meaning
Resources to support widespread participation among young people
Opportunities to gain rewards through success
Access to those who can teach tactics and strategies

51. Consequences of Racial Ideology in Sports
Desegregation of revenue producing sports
Continued racial exclusion in “social” sports
Position stacking in team sports
Racialized interpretations of achievements
Management barriers for blacks
Skewed distribution of African Americans in US colleges and universities