1. SPORTS IN SOCIETY: ISSUES & CONTROVERSIES IN AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND
SPORTS IN SOCIETY: SOCIOLOGICAL ISSUES AND CONTROVERSIES
SPORTS IN SOCIETY: ISSUES & CONTROVERSIES IN AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND
CHAPTER 9
RACE AND ETHNICITY:
Are They Important in Sports?
PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald
© 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

2. Defining Race and Ethnicity
Race refers to a category of people regarded as socially distinct because they share genetic traits believed to be important by people with power and influence in society.
Ethnicity refers to ethnic groups: categories of people regarded as socially distinct because they share a way of life and a commitment to the ideas, norms and material things that constitute that way of life.
PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald
© 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

3. The Concept of Race
Racial categories are social creations based on meanings given to selected physical traits.
Race is not a valid biological concept
Verified by data from Human Genome Project.
Racial classifications are fuzzy because they are based on continuous traits with arbitrary lines drawn to create categories
Racial classifications vary from culture to culture.
PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald
© 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

4. Racial Categories: Drawing Colour Lines in Society
Snow white Midnight black
Skin colour continuum
Continuous traits = skin colour, height, brain size, nose width, leg length, leg length ratio, # of fast twitch muscle fibres, etc.
Discrete traits = blood type, sickle cell trait, etc.
Racial category lines can be drawn anywhere and everywhere on this continuum! We could draw 2 or 2000 lines; our decisions are social decisions, not decisions based on biology. Some people draw many; others draw few; some reject lines.
PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald
© 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
9-4

5. Racial Ideology in History
Racial classification systems were developed as white Europeans explored and colonised the globe and found that there were physical differences between people.
These systems were used to justify colonisation, conversion, and even slavery and genocide.
According to these systems, white skin was the standard, and dark skin was associated with intellectual inferiority and slowed development.
PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald
© 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

6. Racial Ideology in Sports Today
Racial ideology encourages people to:
‘see’ sport performances in ‘racialised’ terms, i.e., in terms of skin colour
use whiteness as the taken-for-granted standard
explain the success or failure of people with dark skin in racial terms
do research designed to ‘discover’ racial difference.
PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald
© 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

7. Traditional Racial Ideology Used in Sports
Achievements of White Competitors are attributed to:
character
culture
organisation.
Achievements of Black Competitors are attributed to:
biology
natural physical abilities.
PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald
© 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

8. A Sociological Hypothesis
Racial ideology + discrimination + sport opportunities
Beliefs about biological and cultural destiny +
Motivation to develop skills
OUTSTANDING ACHIEVEMENTS IN SPORTS
PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald
© 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

9. Searching for ‘Jumping Genes’ in Black Bodies
Why is the search misleading?
It is based on oversimplified ideas about genes and how they work.
It mistakenly assumes that jumping is a simple physical activity related to a single gene or interrelated set of genes.
It often begins with ideas about skin colour and with social definitions of race.
PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald
© 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

10. The Power of Racial Ideology
Black participants often have a difficult time shaking ‘natural athlete’ labels based on racial ideology.
Young people from all racial backgrounds may make choices influenced by racial ideology.
In everyday life, racial ideology is integrally linked to ideas about gender and social class.
PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald
© 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

11. The Dynamics of Racial and Ethnic Relations in Sports
Race and ethnicity remain significant in sports today.
Today’s challenges are not the ones faced in the past.
It is a mistake to think that racial and ethnic issues disappear within multicultural society.
The challenge of dealing with inter-group relations never disappears – it changes in terms of the issues that must be confronted.
PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald
© 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

12. Eliminating Racial and Ethnic Exclusion in Sports
Changes are most likely when :
People with power and control benefit from inclusion.
Individual performances can be measured precisely and objectively.
Members of an entire team benefit from the achievements of teammates.
PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald
© 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

13. Eliminating Racial and Ethnic Exclusion in Sports (cont.)
Changes are most likely when:
Superior performances do not lead to automatic promotions on teams.
Team success does not depend on off-the-field socialising and friendships.
Athletes have little power or authority in the organisational structure of a sport organisation or team.
PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald
© 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

14. After Inclusion: Managing Racial and Ethnic Diversity
Racial and ethnic diversity create management challenges related to:
the social dynamics on teams
the social dynamics among spectators
the marketing of athletes, teams and leagues.
NOTE: The global recruitment of players insures that diversity issues will always exist in sports.
PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald
© 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

15. The Biggest Challenge: Integrating Positions of Power
Even when sports participation is racially and ethnically mixed, power in sports is not readily shared.
The movement of minorities into coaching and administrative positions has been very slow.
Social and legal pressures are still needed before power is fully shared.
PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald
© 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

16. Needed Changes
Regular and direct confrontation of racial and ethnic issues by people in positions of power.
A new vocabulary for dealing with new forms of racial and ethnic diversity in our lives.
Training sessions dealing with practical problems and issues, not just feelings.
PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald
© 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

17. Other Topics
The following slides are for those who deal with ‘race and performance’ issues in depth.
PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald
© 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

18. Using Critical Theory to Ask Questions About Racial Classification Systems
Which classification systems are used?
Who uses them?
Why are some people so dedicated to using certain classification systems?
What are the consequences of usage?
Can negative consequences be minimised?
Can the systems be challenged?
What occurs when systems change?
PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald
© 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

19. The Racially ‘Natural Athlete’?
There is no evidence showing that skin colour is related to physical traits that are essential for athletic excellence across sports or in any particular sport.
PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald
© 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

20. Socially Constructing the Black Male Body: Racial Ideology in Action
In Euro-American history there has been:
strong fears of the physical power and prowess of (oppressed) black men
powerful anxieties about the sexual appetites and capabilities of (angry) black men
deep fascination with the movement of the black body
THEREFORE, the black male body =
valuable entertainment commodity
PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald
© 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

21. Research Summary (Genetic Factors and Athletic Performance)
Are there genetic differences between individuals? YES
Are genetic characteristics related to athletic excellence? YES
Could one gene account for success across a range of different sports? PROBABLY NOT
Might skin colour genes and physical performance genes be connected? NO EVIDENCE
PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald
© 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

22. Research Summary (cont.)
Are physical development and the expression of skills in sports related to cultural definitions of skin colour and race? DEFINITELY YES
Do cultural ideas about skin colour and race influence the interpretation of and meaning given to the movement and achievements of athletes? DEFINITELY YES
PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald
© 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

23. Social Origins of Athletic Excellence
A cultural emphasis on achievement in activities that have special cultural meaning.
Resources to support widespread participation among young people.
Opportunities to gain rewards through success.
Access to those who can teach tactics and strategies.
PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald
© 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

24. Consequences of Racial Ideology in Sports
Desegregation of revenue-producing sports.
Continued racial exclusion in ‘social’ sports.
Position stacking in team sports.
Racialised interpretations of achievements.
Management barriers for blacks.
PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald
© 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd