1. AP Human Geography Notes- Unit 1
SAIL!
Parts taken from the 2012
AP Princeton Review Human Geography
Intro

2. Geography
the scientific study of the location of people and activities across Earth, and the reasons for their distribution.
it is the study of space and place
Geo is Greek for earth and graphia is Greek for description. Geography is based on the assumption that there is pattern, regularity and reason to the location of human and physical phenomenon and there are spatial structures and processes that give rise to them. “Who we are is often inseparable from where we are.”

3. Place Space refers to the geometric surface of the earth
Place is an area of bounded space that is viewed as significant
When this is recognized, we assign a toponym (place name)
Places change over time
Sequent occupancy- the succession of groups and cultural influences throughout a place’s history
Place specificity
EX: the place specificity of Santa Fe, New Mexico, is a complex mix of multiple Native American, Spanish colonial, and modern American influences based on past and current societal influences
Place names commonly have:
-British origins in N. America and Australia
-Portuguese origins in Brazil
-Spanish origins elsewhere in Latin America
-Dutch origins in S. Africa
Every inhabitated place has a name.

4. Geography vs. History
Geographic Questions: Geographers ask where things are and why they are there. Just like how historians ask when.
Historians organize information by time and geographers organize information by place. Historians study human activities through time (chronology), whereas geographers study the arrangement of human activities in space.
According to Kant, thinking about spatial arrangements is to the study of geography as the arrangement of events in temporal sequence is to the study of history.

5. Geography’s Sub Disciplines
Physical geography studies where and why natural forces occur (e.g. climates, landforms and types of vegetation)
human geography is the study of where and why human activities occur (e.g. religions, businesses, cities).

6. Scale
Scale is the relationship of an object or place to the earth as a whole
Two types of scale
Map Scale
The ratio of distance on a map to actual distance
Relative Scale
Also known as the scale of analysis
Describes the level of aggregation
The level at which you group objects together for examination
Example: 1:54,000; 1 cm equals 3,000 m

7. Maps

8. Map: a two-dimensional model of Earth’s surface.
Cartography: the science of map making.
Early Maps:
The earliest known maps were drawn on Babylonian clay tablets 2300 BCE.
Aristotle first demonstrated that the Earth was round.
The Greek Ptolemy made numerous maps that weren’t improved on for more than a thousand of years.

9. Map Types See PDF and Pwpt quiz Reference and Topographic Maps
Thematic Maps
Choropleth Maps
Isoline Maps
Dot Density Maps
Flow-line (aka Isoline) Maps
Cartograms

10. Mental Maps Quickly draw a map of Tainan.
Then compare your map with your neighbors.
Would you be able to navigate using your map?
What about with your neighbor’s map?
Can you make scientific measurements with your map?

11. Topographic Maps Show the contour lines of elevation
Highly accurate in location and topography
Used for engineering surveys and land navigation

12. Map Analysis: TODALSIGS
Title: is there a label describing what the map shows?
Orientation: which way is north? Does the map have an orientation symbol such as a compass rose?
Date: is there a date? Is the map still accurate?
Author: is there an author listed? Why was it made?
Legend: Is there a legend (key) to aid in reading the map? What symbols are included?
Scale: Is there a scale to read distances? What distance does a unit of measure represent on the map?
Index: Is there an alphabetical list of places shown on the map and a grid to help locate them?
Grid: Does the map have a set of intersecting lines that aid in identifying locations? What are they?
Source: Where did the information contained in the map come from?
Analyze some topo and other maps. Students write info in their notebooks.

13. Projections Also see the map projections PDF
Why do maps distort the Earth’s surface?
A map projection's level of accuracy is based upon four concepts
Area preservation
Shape preservation
Distance preservation
Direction preservation
Because the Earth is round, and points must be transferred to a flat two-dimensional surface.

14. Why do maps distort the Earth’s surface?
Unfolding the Earth:

15. Goode Homolosine projection orange peel map

16. Conformal Projections
Attempt to maintain the shape of polygons on the map
Downside= distorts the relative area from one part of the map to another
EX: Mercator projection
Distorts Greenland’s size (area)

17. Equal-area Projections
Attempt to maintain the relative spatial science and the areas on the map
These projections can distort the shape of polygons
EX: Lambert Projection
Distorted size of northern Canadian islands

18. Other Projections
Some map projections attempt to balance area and form
EX: Robinson Projection (top) balanced distortions
EX2: Goode’s homolosine projection (bottom) minimizes distortions, but creates a disjointed map

19. Location..(Location, Location)
Absolute Location
Relative Location

20. Absolute Location
Absolute location describes a place using coordinates such as latitude and longitude
Latitude and longitude degrees can be divided into 60 minutes (‘), and minutes can be divided into 60 seconds (“).
Example: Mt Everest summit is at 27° 59' 18'' N; 86° 55' 31'' E (latitude, longitude; right and up).
Equator is 0O Latitude
North and South Poles are 90O latitude
Prime Meridian is 0O longitude and runs through the royal observatory in Greenwich, England. The development of a method to determine longitude overcame the greatest obstacle to sea navigation and exploration.
Latitude can easily be measured by the position of shadows, the sun and stars, but since longitude is artificially constructed (anywhere could serve as the prim meridian) it is difficult to what ones longitude is. The inability to know longitude was the greatest obstacle to exploration and discovery for centuries. EX: Absolute Location of the United States Capitol Building: 38O 53’ 23” N, 77O 0’ 32” W

21. Latitude and Longitude Lab
Google Earth: virtual globe
Download topo maps from:
Handout: physical globe, atlas and maps

22. Time Zones Divided up into 15 time zones around the world
Because 360(degrees in a rotation)/24(hours in a day)= 15o of longitude
Dividing lines between time zones often follow political boundaries, and can occasionally follow local area divisions
Were created during the era of transcontinental railways in the 19th century to standardize time across long east- west train lines.
(GMT) Greenwich Mean Time was calculated until 1954 by solar observations from the Royal Observatory. Thereafter, Universal Time Coordinated is measured using atomic clocks and celestial measurements with corrections for the tide, atmospheric motion, plate tectonics, seasons, and other intricacies of our planet’s motion.

23. Site and Situation
Site: is the physical characteristics of a place (e.g. climate, water sources, topography, soil, vegetation, latitude, and elevation).
Example: Singapore is a good defensive site, because it is an island with a central hilltop.
Situation: is the location of a place relative to other places.
Example: because of Singapore’s location at the Strait of Malacca, which is the major passageway for ships travelling between the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean, Singapore has become a center for trading.
Humans can modify sites. Example: New York has expanded over time as land has been added to the East River and Hudson River to make more land for buildings.
Site EX: The Acropolis is located on elevated ground. Situation EX: The Acropolis relates to other defensive Greek monuments because of their Ancient Greek architectural style and their frequent location of construction on an elevated hill.

24. Distance part 1
Distance can be regarded in both absolute and relative terms like scale and location
Linear absolute distance can be measured as Euclidean distance, the straight line of distance from one point to another
Geographers often use the concept of distance decay to explain relative distance
Distance decay: the farther one group is from another the less likely
they are to interact with each other.

25. Distance part 2
Distance decay is a concept that states the further away different places are from a place of origin, the less likely interaction will be with the original place
Relative distance is expressed by the principle of Tobler’s Law which states that all places are interrelated, but closer places are more related than further ones
friction of distance is based on the notion that distance usually requires some amount of effort, money, and/or energy to overcome distance. Because of this "friction," spatial interactions will tend to take place more often over shorter distances; quantity of interaction will decline with distance.
EX: When the time and cost of moving a product prevents it from being sold in far away locations
PLERM theme: M movement

26. Space-Time Compression
Space-Time Compression is the decreased time and relative distance between places
Technology can reduce the relative distance between places
Transportation such as airplanes or trains can reduce travel time between two distant points and, as a result, increase their interaction
The Internet can also influence space-time compression. I am able to communicate with my friends in Australia via Facebook. Without Facebook, my interaction with these friends would be limited
PLERM theme: M movement

27. Spatial Interactions: when places are connected through a network e. g
Spatial Interactions: when places are connected through a network e.g. roads, phones, etc.
Pattern
Diffusion Patterns
Density
Central Places
Core and Periphery
Spatial Interaction: when places are connected through a network (e.g. trade route, telecommunications, roads, etc.)

28. Landscape Analysis Mt St Helens Landsat images

29. Pattern
Various Terms
Cluster- objects are grouped together on the earth’s surface
Agglomeration- when clustering occurs purposefully around a central point or an economic growth pole
Random pattern- no reason for a particular distribution of a spatial phenomenon
Scattered- objects that are normally ordered but appear dispersed
If a pattern is in a straight line it is linear and if it is wavy it is sinuous(think sine curve)

30. Land Survey Patterns
Have an effect on the property lines and political boundaries of states and provinces
Different types of land survey patterns
Metes and Bounds
Township and Range
Long lots

31. Metes and Bounds
Developed in Europe centuries before the US used this method.
land surveys (until the 1830s) used natural landmarks and compass bearings to divide the land into metes and bounds.

32. Township and Range
After the 1830s, new technology allowed surveyors to divide the land based on lines of longitude and latitude
This produced the geometric shape to many western states of the United States
Nevada, Utah, Colorado, Wyoming etc…

33. Long Lots
Former French colonial areas such as Quebec and Louisiana have long-lot patterns
These have a narrow frontage along a road or waterway with a long lot shape behind

34. Diffusion Patterns
There are various ways and patterns in which human phenomena diffuse spatially or spread across the earth’s surface
Most often we examine how culture, ideas, or technology spread from a point of origin to other parts of the world.
That point of origin or place of innovation can be called a hearth.
PLERM theme: M movement

35. Relocation Diffusion
Begins at a point of origin and then crosses a significant physical barrier, and later relocates on the other side
Can often influence and modify the items being diffused
PLERM theme: M movement

36. Expansion Diffusion
Originates in a central place and expands outwards in all directions.
Distance does not have to be equal in all directions
Three types of expansion diffusion:
Hierarchical
Contagious
Stimulus
PLERM theme: M movement

37. Hierarchal Diffusion
Originates in a first- order location and later moves to second-order locations, which move to tertiary-order locations, which move to…
Endless cycle
It may result from the spread of ideas through the government, political leaders, social elites, etc.

38. Contagious Diffusion
Begins at a point of origin, then moves outward to nearby locations, especially on adjoining transportation lines
Ex: spread of AIDS or other contagious disases.

39. Stimulus Diffusion
A general or underlying principle diffuses and then stimulates the creation of new products or ideas even if the characteristic itself doesn’t diffuse.

40. Diffusion Web Inquiry The Olympic Games handout

41. Density
Number of objects (e.g. people, houses, cars, etc.) in a given area (square unit of distance, e.g. km2 or square miles) is known as arithmetic density
Agricultural density is the people per square unit of land actively under cultivation
Physiologic density measures the number of people per square unit of arable land

42. Central Places Central Places are any node of human activity
Most often the centers of economic exchange
Markets are often located at transportation nodes
Central Place Theory
Developed in the 1930s by a German geographer Walter Christaller
In the model, city location and the level of urban economic exchange could be analyzed using central places within hexagonal market areas which overlapped each other

43. Core and Periphery
Many different regional, cultural, economic, political, and environmental phenomena and human activities display some sort of core and periphery relationship
A country’s capital is the core of its political landscape
The core does not have to be in the center of the peripheral landscape

44. Models
A model is an abstract generalization of reality. Geographers use models to explain patterns, make informed decisions, and predict future behaviors. Models give us a way to picture geographical patterns that are normally not visible to the human eye
Spatial models attempt to show the commonalities in pattern among similar landscapes
Urban models try to show how different cities have similar spatial relationships and economic or social structures
Non-spatial models
Demographic transition model uses population data to construct a model of dynamic growth in normal scale populations without reference to space
These patterns are rarely evident in maps.

45. Gravity Model
Used to calculate transportation flow between two points, determine the area of influence of a city’s businesses, and estimate the flow of migrants to a place.
locationA’s population x locationB’s population
distance2
NYC pop: 19,750,000 NYC to London: 3,470 miles
London pop: 12,895,000 NYC to Tokyo: 6,760 miles
Tokyo pop: 32,450,000
Tokyo’s gravity is smaller than London’s, but not that much smaller, despite being twice as far away, because of its higher population and consequent relatively high gravity.

46. Geographic Technology
Geographical Information Systems(GIS)
Global Positioning Systems(GPS)
Remote Sensing
Aerial Photography
Online maps (Google Maps, Google Earth, etc.)

47. Geographical Information Systems (GIS)
Uses one or more data layers in a computer program capable of spatial analysis and mapping
Data layers are numerical, coded, or textual data that is attributed to specific geographic coordinates or areas
Data between layers can be analyzed spatially
Used when calling 911

48. Global Positioning Systems(GPS)
Utilizes a worldwide network of satellites
A GPS receiver is able to triangulate a coordinate location and display map data for the user
Used for navigation (where?)

49. Remote Sensing
Aerial photography and satellite-based remote sensing make up a large amount of the geographic and GIS data used today
Aerial photographs have been used since the 1800s
Remote sensing satellites have been used since the 1970s
Remote sensing can record data from the earth’s surface
Data not only includes visual light wavelengths, but infrared and radar information
Commonly used by local governments to record property data and set tax assessments
Aerial photographs can also be used to revise topographic map data without sending out a survey team to gather new data
Infrared satellite imagery is commonly used to determine the health of vegetation on the earth’s surface
Helps to maintain stable prices for farm goods such as milk, eggs, and bread

50. Sources of Geographical Data
The field (surveying)
Census data (and other polls, surveys and questionnaires)
Online databases
Remote sensing (aerial photos, satellite images, weather balloons, etc.)

51. The Geospatial Revolution
mplete
Skip ahead to :40. 13:45 total length.

52. “Why of Where”
The “why of where” refers to the idea that the explanation of a spatial pattern is crucial
GIS helps analyze geographical data to answer this question.
“Sense of Place”