1. Ecosystem Energetics Limits on primary production Relationship between primary and secondary productivity Trophic efficiency Nutrient Cycles

2. Energy flow in ecosystems

3. Ecosystem energetics - terminology Standing crop (=biomass) – amount of accumulated organic matter found in an area at a given time [g/m 2 ] Productivity – rate at which organic matter is created by photosynthesis [g/m 2 /yr] Primary productivity – autotrophs Secondary - heterotrophs Gross versus net primary productivity

4. Ecological Efficiency Ecological efficiency (food chain efficiency) is the percentage of energy transferred from one trophic level to the next: –range of 5% to 20% is typical, mean = 10% –to understand this more fully, we must study the utilization of energy within a trophic level

5. Intratrophic Energy Transfers Intratrophic transfers involve several components: –ingestion (energy content of food ingested) –egestion (energy content of indigestible materials regurgitated or defecated) –assimilation (energy content of food digested and absorbed) –excretion (energy content of organic wastes) –respiration (energy consumed for maintenance) –production (residual energy content for growth and reproduction)

6. Fundamental Energy Relationships Components of an animal’s energy budget are related by: 1) ingested - egested energy = assimilated energy 2) assimilated energy - respiration - excretion = production

7. Assimilation Efficiency Assimilation efficiency = assimilation/ingestion primarily a function of food quality: –seeds: 80% –young vegetation: 60-70% –plant foods of grazers, browsers: 30-40% –decaying wood: 15% –animal foods: 60-90%

8. Net Production Efficiency Net production efficiency = production/assimilation depends largely on metabolic activity: –birds: <1% –small mammals: <6% –sedentary, cold-blooded animals: as much as 75%

9. Production Efficiency in Plants The concept of production efficiency is somewhat different for plants because plants do not digest and assimilate food: –net production efficiency = net production/gross production, varies between 30% and 85% –rapidly growing plants in temperate zone have net production efficiencies of 75-85%; their counterparts in the tropics are 40-60% efficient NPP = GPP - R Net Primary Gross Primary Respiration Productivity Productivity

10. Consumption efficiency = 200/1000 Assimilation efficiency 70/200 Production efficiency = 14/70 Amt produced by trophic level n-1 Amt ingested by trophic level n Amt egested as feces (waste) by trophic level n Amt assimilated (i.e. absorbed into body) by trophic level n Amt respired by trophic level n Secondary production by trophic level n Efficiency of energy transfer

11. Detritus Food Chains Ecosystems support two parallel food chains: –herbivore-based (relatively large animals feed on leaves, fruits, seeds) –detritus-based (microorganisms and small animals consume dead remains of plants and indigestible excreta of herbivores) –herbivores consume: 1.5-2.5% of net primary production in temperate forests 12% in old-field habitats 60-99% in plankton communities

12. Exploitation Efficiency When production and consumption are not balanced, energy may accumulate in the ecosystem (as organic sediments). Exploitation efficiency = ingestion by one trophic level/production of the trophic level below it. To the extent that exploitation efficiency is <100%, ecological efficiency = exploitation efficiency x gross production efficiency.

13. Energy moves through ecosystems at different rates. Other indices address how rapidly energy cycles through an ecosystem: –residence time measures the average time a packet of energy resides in storage: residence time (yr) = energy stored in biomass/net productivity –biomass accumulation ratio is a similar index based on biomass rather than energy: biomass accumulation ratio (yr) = biomass/rate of biomass production

14. Biomass Accumulation Ratios Biomass accumulation ratios become larger as amount of stored energy increases: –humid tropical forests have net production of 1.8 kg/m 2 /yr and biomass of 43 kg/m 2, yielding biomass accumulation ratio of 23yr –ratios for forested terrestrial communities are typically >20 yr –ratios for planktonic aquatic ecosystems are <20 days

15. Biomass Accumulation Ratios

16. Ecosystem Energetics Comparative studies of ecosystem energetics now exist for various systems. Many systems are supported mainly by autochthonous materials (produced within system). Some ecosystems are subsidized by input of allochthonous materials (produced outside system).

17. Autochthonous versus Allochthonous Production In streams assimilation of energy by herbivores often exceeds net primary production - difference represents energy subsidy. –autochthonous production dominates in large rivers, lakes, marine ecosystems –allochthonous production dominates in small streams, springs, and caves (100%)

18. Ecosystem NPP

20. Energy allocation

21. Primary productivity limits secondary productivity

22. Consumption efficiency determines pathways of energy flow through ecosystem

23. Note: Detrital food chain accounts for most biomass produced in a community Grazing plays greatest role in phytoplankton-based food chains

24. Energy loss between trophic levels

25. General Rules for Energy Flow through Ecosystems 1) Assimilation efficiency increases at higher trophic levels 2) Ecological efficiencies average about 10% Thus, only about 1% of NPP ends up as production in the third trophic level

26. Decomposition and Mineralization Most material is derived from plants Involves: Release of chemical energy Mineralization (= organic --> inorganic) Note immobilization = reverse of mineralization Net mineralization rate = mineralization - immobilization

27. Terrestrial communities: Nutrient sources Weathering of rock (K, P, Ca and many others) Fixation of CO 2 (photosynthesis) and N 2 Dryfall (particles in the atmosphere) Wetfall (snow & rain); contains –Oxides of S, N –Aerosols particles high in Na, Mg, Cl, S produced by evaporation of droplets –Dust particles from fires, volcanoes Ca, K, S

28. Terrestrial communities: Nutrient losses Release to atmosphere –CO 2 from respiration –Volatile hydrocarbons from leaves –Aerosols –NH 3 (decomposition), N 2 (denitrification) Loss in streamflow –Dissolved nutrients –Particles

29. Oceans No outflow Detritus sinks --> mineralization --> nutrients end up: 1.Being carried back to surface in upwelling currents, or 2.Trapped in sediment (e.g., phosphorus: 1% lost to sediment with each cycling)

30. CARBON CYCLE 4 PROCESSES MOVE CARBON THROUGH ITS CYCLE: 1)Biological 2)Geochemical 3)Mixed biochemical 4)Human Activity CO 2

32. NITROGEN CYCLE Nitrogen-containing nutrients include: 1)Ammonia (NH 3 ) 2)Nitrate (NO 3 - ) 3)Nitrite (NO 2 - ) 4)ORGANISMS NEED NITROGEN TO MAKE AMINO ACIDS FOR BUILDING PROTEINS!!! N 2 in Atmosphere NH 3 N0 3- & N0 2 -

33. The nitrogen cycle

34. PHOSPHORUS CYCLE PHOSPHORUS FORMS PART OF IMPORTANT LIFE-SUSTAINING MOLECULES (ex. DNA & RNA)

35. The phosphorus cycle

36. We’re in the Driver’s Seat - Human Activities Dominate Many Biogeochemical Cycles