1. Thinking Like a Researcher
Group 3
Member: 蔡孟慈
　　　　 李旻璋

2. Learning Objectives
The terminology used by professional researchers employing scientific thinking.
What you need to formulate a solid research hypothesis.
The need for sound reasoning to enhance business research results.

3. Language of Research Concepts Constructs Operational Definitions
Variables
Descriptive and Hypotheses
Theory
Models

4. Concepts
A concept is a generally accepted collection of meanings or characteristics associated with certain events, objects, conditions, situations, and behaviors.
EX:

5. Sources of Concepts
Concepts that are in frequent and general use have been developed over time through shared language usage.
To adopt new meanings for words.

6. Importance to Research
The success of research hinges on:
How clearly we conceptualize.
How well others understand the concepts we use.
EX: Asking for an estimate of a family’s total income
Time period, such as weekly, monthly, or annually.
Before or after income taxes. ……

7. Constructs
A construct is an image or abstract idea specifically invented for a given research and/or theory-building purpose.
EX:
Table →
Personality →

8. Exhibit 3-1

9. Definitions
If words have different meaning to the parties involved, then the parties are not communicating well. Definitions are one way to reduce this danger.

10. Definitions Operational Definition
A definition stated in terms of specific criteria for testing or measurement.
Must refer to empirical standards.
　Freshman Fewer than 30 hours’ credit
　Sophomore 30 to 59 hours’ credit
　Junior 60 to 89 hours’ credit
　Senior 90 or more hours’ credit

11. Variables
In practice, the term variable is used as a synonym for construct, or the property being studied.
Dichotomous
- have only two value
Discrete
Continuous Variable
- may take on values within a given range or an infinite set

12. Independent and Dependent Variables
Independent Variable (IV) is manipulated by the researcher, and the manipulation causes an effect on the dependent variable.
Dependent Variable (DV) is measured, predicted, or otherwise monitored and is expected to be affected by manipulation of an independent variable.

13. Independent and Dependent Variables: Synonyms
Independent Variable
Dependent Variable
Predictor
Criterion
Presumed cause
Presumed effect
Stimulus
Response
Predicted from…
Predicted to…
Antecedent
Consequence
Manipulated
Measured outcome

14. Moderating or Interaction Variables
A simple one-to-one relationship needs to be conditioned or revised to take other variables into account.

15. Extraneous Variables
An almost infinite number of extraneous variables (EVs) exists that might conceivably affect a given relationship.
Control variables(CVs) in our investigation to ensure that our results are not biased.
Extraneous variables can also be confounding variables(CFVs) to our hypothesized IV–DV relationship, similar to moderating variables.

16. Extraneous Variables

17. Intervening Variables
An intervening variable(IVV) conceptual mechanism through which the IV and MV might affect the DV.
Can be defined as a factor that theoretically affects the DV but cannot be observed or has not been measured.

18. Intervening Variables

19. Propositions and Hypotheses
Brand Manager Jones (case) has a higher-than-average achievement motivation (variable).
Brand managers in Company Z (cases) have a higher-than-average achievement motivation (variable).
Generalization

20. Hypothesis Formats Descriptive Hypothesis
In Detroit, our potato chip market share stands at 13.7%.
American cities are experiencing budget difficulties.
Research Question
What is the market share for our potato chips in Detroit?
Are American cities experiencing budget difficulties?
A descriptive hypothesis is a statement about the existence, size, form, or distribution of a variable. Researchers often use a research question rather than a descriptive hypothesis. Examples are provided in the slide. Either format is acceptable, but the descriptive hypothesis has three advantages over the research question.
Descriptive hypotheses encourage researchers to crystallize their thinking about the likely relationships.
Descriptive hypotheses encourage researchers to think about the implications of a supported or rejected finding.
Descriptive hypotheses are useful for testing statistical significance.

21. Relational Hypotheses
Correlational
Young women (under 35) purchase fewer units of our product than women who are older than 35.
The number of suits sold varies directly with the level of the business cycle.
Explanatory
An increase in family income leads to an increase in the percentage of income saved.
Loyalty to a grocery store increases the probability of purchasing that store’s private brand products.
A relational hypothesis is a statement about the relationship between two variables with respect to some case. Relational hypotheses may be correlational or explanatory (causal).
A correlational hypothesis is a statement indicating that variables occur together in some specified manner without implying that one causes the other.
A causal hypothesis is a statement that describes a relationship between two variables in which one variable leads to a specified effect on the other variable.

22. The Role of Hypotheses Guide the direction of the study
Identify relevant facts
Suggest most appropriate research design
Provide framework for organizing resulting conclusions
This slide presents the functions served by hypotheses.

23. What is a Strong Hypothesis?
Adequate for its purpose
A Strong Hypothesis Is
Testable
Better
than rivals

24. Exhibit 2-6 Theory of the Product Life Cycle

25. Exhibit 2-7 A Distribution Network Model

26. Exhibit 2-8 The Role of Reasoning
Business models are developed through the use of inductive and deductive reasoning.
As illustrated in Exhibit 2-8, a business model may originate from empirical observations about market behavior based on researched facts and relationships among variables.
Inductive reasoning allows the modeler to draw conclusions from the facts or evidence in planning the dynamics of the model. The modeler may also use existing theory, managerial experience or judgment, or facts.

27. Scientific method Direct observation of phenomena
Clearly defined variable, method, and procedures
Empirically testable hypotheses
The ability to rule out rival hypotheses
Good business research is based on sound reasoning because reasoning is essential for producing scientific results. This slide introduces the scientific method and its essential tenets. The scientific method guides our approach to problem-solving.
An important term in the list is empirical. Empirical testing denotes observations and propositions based on sensory experiences and/or derived from such experience by methods of inductive logic, including mathematics and statistics. Researchers using this approach attempt to describe, explain, and make predictions by relying on information gained through observation.
The scientific method is described as a puzzle-solving activity.
Statistical rather than linguistic justification of conclusions
The self-correcting process

28. Researchers Encounter problems State the problem Propose a hypotheses
Deduces outcomes or consequences of
the a hypotheses
Formulates several rival hypotheses
Design and processing verifiable
test hypotheses
Write conclusions
Feed information back into the original problem, modifying it according to the strength of evidence

29. Sound Reasoning Types of Discourse Exposition Argument Deduction
Exposition consists of statements that describe without attempting to explain.
Argument allows us to explain, interpret, defend, challenge, and explore meaning. There are two types of argument: deduction and induction.
Deduction is a form of reasoning in which the conclusion must necessarily follow from the premises given. The next slide provides an example of a deductive argument.
Induction is a form of reasoning that draws a conclusion from one or more particular facts or pieces of evidence. Slide 2-8 illustrates an inductive argument.
Deduction
Induction

30. Why Didn’t Sales Increase?
Exhibit 3-8
Induction and deduction can be used together in research reasoning. Induction occurs when we observe a fact and ask, “Why is this?” In answer to this question, we advance a tentative explanation or hypothesis. The hypothesis is plausible if it explains the event or condition (fact) that prompted the question. Deduction is the process by which we test whether the hypothesis is capable of explaining the fact.
Exhibit 3-8 illustrates this process.

31. Tracy’s Performance
Exhibit 3-9

32. References
Cooper and Schindler, Business Research Methods, McGraw-Hill, 2014.