1. GEOG 101: Day 11 Finishing up Biodiversity; Forestry

2. Housekeeping Items  Mid-term assignments are due on Thursday.  We’ll finish up biodiversity today and then move into forestry  Solutions: A Network for Sustainability has designated next week (the 15th through the 22 nd ) as Low Impact Week. They hold their meetings usually every Wednesday at 1 in Building 356, Room 311. They have a Facebook page and can also be contacted at …..  A reminder that the mid-term assignments are due on Thursday.  Wikipedia claims that 10-15% of the Earth’s land surface is in some form of park or protected area, but that is likely high and often meaningless. Only 1.17% of the ocean is under some form of protection.

3. Contact us now for further information: ARCHELON, the Sea Turtle Protection Society of Greece 57 Solomou str., GR-104 32 ATHENS, Greece Tel./fax: +30 210 5231342 e-mail: volunteers@archelon.gr

4. Campus Food Initiative Town Hall Meetings: You're Invited! Please join this facilitated Town Hall Meeting to give further input on what type of food services you'd like to have on campus. Refreshments will be served. Session #1 Date: Wednesday, February 11 Time: 3 pm to 4 pm Location: Bldg 300/Royal Arbutus Room Session #2 Date: Thursday, February 12 Time: 12 noon to 1 pm Location: Bldg 300/Royal Arbutus Room See also the National Geographic web site on food issues: http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/food-education/?ar_a=1

5. Table 1. Recorded DFNS Transactions by Country, Conservation Funds Generated, 1987-2010 (Millions US$)[4] – partial list (source: Wikipedia) Country Three-party Swap Funding Non-US Bilateral and Multilateral Swap Funding US Bilateral Swap Funding Total Argentina$3.1 Bangladesh$8.5 Belize$9.0 Bolivia$3.1$9.6$21.8$34.5 Botswana$8.3 Brazil$2.2 Bulgaria$16.2 Cameroon$25.0 Chile$18.7 Colombia$12.0$51.6$63.6 Costa Rica$42.9$43.3$26.0$112.2 Dominican Republic $0.6 Ecuador$7.4$10.8$18.2 Egypt$29.6 El Salvador$6.0$55.2$61.2 Ghana$1.1 Guatemala$1.4$24.4$25.8 Guinea Bissau $0.4 Honduras$21.4 Indonesia$30.0 Jamaica$0.4$37.5$37.9 Jordan$45.5 B

6. Housekeeping Items  I looked up debt-for-nature swaps. According to Wikipedia, “[s]ince the first swap occurred between Conservation International and Bolivia in 1987, many national governments and conservation organizations have engaged in debt-for-nature swaps.” As of 2010, these totalled over $1 billion worldwide.Conservation International  Today, our topic is forestry and I think I’ll have to leave it to you to read about the environmental and social impacts of mining. Canadian mining companies have a fairly bad track record around the world, and we have a couple of films about that in the VIU Library – see Defensora, in particular.  Solutions meetings will now be on Mondays from 11:00 to noon in Building 356, in Room 311. To contact them see https://www.facebook.com/viusolutions. E-mail is solutions@viusu.ca. https://www.facebook.com/viusolutions solutions@viusu.ca

7. Housekeeping Items  For your assignments, try to follow the APA parenthetical style – see https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/ and https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/02/. https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/ https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/02/  From Purdue OWL:  “If you are directly quoting from a work, you will need to include the author, year of publication, and the page number for the reference (preceded by ‘p.’). Introduce the quotation with a signal phrase that includes the author's last name followed by the date of publication in parentheses.  According to Jones (1998), "Students often had difficulty using APA style, especially when it was their first time" (p. 199). Jones (1998) found "students often had difficulty using APA style" (p. 199); what implications does this have for teachers?  If the author is not named in a signal phrase, place the author's last name, the year of publication, and the page number in parentheses after the quotation, as with the next bullet.  She stated, "Students often had difficulty using APA style" (Jones, 1998, p. 199), but she did not offer an explanation as to why.  The site also has info on citing on-line sources as well.

8. Topics This Week – Forestry and Mining: Key Industries in B.C.  How many people have family members who or have been involved in these industries, or who have themselves been involved?  Why should we care about them in a course on environmental geography?  What kinds of potential ecological impacts do they have?  How are they linked into globalization?  Where are the primary markets for wood products and minerals, including fossil fuels?

9. Upon completing this chapter, you will be able to  Describe the basic functional processes of trees and their role in biogeochemical cycling  Summarize the principal types of forest biomes, especially those indigenous to Canada  Describe the ecological roles and economic contributions of forests  Trace the history and scale of forest loss and identify the current drivers of deforestation  Outline the major methods of harvesting timber  Explain the fundamentals of forest management, and identify forest management agencies in Canada and internationally 10-9

10.  1993: The largest act of civil disobedience in Canadian history  12,000 Protestors blocked loggers from cutting ancient trees in Clayoquot Sound on Vancouver Island, British Columbia (anyone you know involved?), and over 800 were arrested  Old-growth forests = complex primary forests in which the trees are at least 150 years old  Jobs depended on the timber industry  Iisaak, meaning “respect”, became a guiding principle for forestry in the area  Variable retention harvesting = logging selectively to retain a certain percentage and characteristics of the forest ecosystem Central Case: Battling over the last big trees at Clayoquot Sound 10-10

12. The Forest and the Trees 10-12

13. The Forest and the Trees  Forests cover about 31% of Earth’s land surface (and used to cover much more, though a few areas are reverting back)  Provide habitat, maintain soil, air, and water quality, and play key roles in biogeochemical cycles 10-13

14. Trees have several basic requirements For photosynthesis to occur  An amenable temperature (appropriate to the species)  Air (with CO 2 )  Light  Proper soil (with certain nutrients)  Water (some tree species need more than others) 10-14

15.  Macronutrients – required in large amounts  Micronutrients – required in small amounts  Transpiration – water loss from leaf surface, cools the plant as well as assisting in the movement of nutrients  Water drawn up through xylem by adhesion and cohesion (water being sucked out of the leaf pores by wind, thus creating a vacuum that enables more water to flow up the trunk channels)  Useful to plant trees in close proximity to crops to make water more accessible to crops Trees have several basic requirements (cont’d) 10-15

16. There are three major groups of forest biomes (ecosystem type that occurs around the globe)  Boreal forest  High-latitude forest  Cold, dry climates with short growing seasons  Temperate forest  Mid-latitude forest (eastern forests or west-coast rainforests)  Seasonal climate (winter season vs. summer growing season)  Tropical forest  Equatorial-latitude forest  Wet, tropical climate 10-16

18. Forests grade into open wooded lands  Drylands: - Shrublands = wooded areas covered by shrubs and occasional taller trees (e.g. tundra) - Savannah = open area fominated by grasses with widely scattered trees - Grasslands = lands dominated by grasses and non-woody vegetation 10-18

19. Canada is a steward for much of the world’s forest  Canada has the highest amount of forested land per capita in the world  More than 50% of Canada’s primary forest remains more or less intact 10-19

20. Canada’s forests are varied  402 million hectares of forested and other wooded land is 25% of the world’s natural forest. For a fuller description, see http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/articles/forest- regions. http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/articles/forest- regions  Forests of the north: - Boreal forest (taiga) is the largest forested region of Canada - Every province and territory except New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island  Forests of the west: - Forest regions: Subalpine, montane, coast, Columbia  Forests of the east: - Forest regions: Deciduous (Carolinian), Great-Lakes- St. Lawrence (mixed deciduous & evergreen), Acadian (see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_England/Acadian_forests). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_England/Acadian_forests 10-20

21. Forests are ecologically valuable  One of the richest ecosystems for biodiversity  Structural complexity houses great biodiversity  Some animals adapted for living in canopy, others specialize on the sub-canopies  Shrubs and groundcover plants of the understory are home to still more organisms  Fallen leaves and branches called litter, house still others  Forest edge can be quite different from habitat in the forest core. 10-21

22. Different storeys (layers) in the forest 10-22

23. Trees provide ecosystem services of value to people  A forest provides many ecosystem services  Stabilizes soil and prevents erosion  Slows runoff, lessens flooding, purifies water  Stores carbon, releases oxygen, moderates climate  Regions that have lost their forest cover – where are they, and what are they subject to? - 10-23

24. Harvesting Forest Products 10-24

25. Forest products are economically valued  Benefits: fuel, shelter, transportation (ships), paper  Helped society achieve a high standard of living  Softwood = timber harvested from coniferous trees  Hardwood = timber harvested from deciduous trees  NTFPs = non-timber forest products such as medicinal, herbal, decorative and edible products (e.g. edible plants, traditional First Nations plants for healing and eating, mushrooms, salal for arrangements, etc.) 10-25

26. Timber is harvested by several methods  Clearcutting method – all trees in an area are cut, leaving only stumps  Most cost-efficient  Greatest impacts on forest ecosystems  Mimics natural disturbances such as fires  Enhances soil erosion and run-off 10-26

27. Timber is harvested by several methods (cont’d) 10-27

28. Timber is harvested by several methods (cont’d)  Selection systems = only select trees are cut  Single tree selection = widely spaced trees are cut  Group tree selection = small patches of trees are cut  All methods disturb habitat, but some more than others  Change forest structure and composition  Increase erosion, siltation, runoff, flooding, landslides 10-28

29. Plantation forestry has grown in North America  Reforestation = planting of trees after logging  Afforestation = planting of trees where forested cover has not existed for some time (e.g. Oak Ridges Moraine on Ontario in ‘30s ‘40s, and ’50s)  Even-aged trees = all trees are the same age  Maximum sustainable yield = cutting trees shortly after they have gone through their fastest stage of growth, and trees often grow most quickly at intermediate ages 10-29

30. Land Conversion and Deforestation 10-30

31. Land Conversion and Deforestation  Deforestation = the clearing and loss of forests  People have cleared forests for millennia  Clearing of land for farming one of the first significant human environmental impacts  Alters landscapes and ecosystems (and hence habitat) 10-31

32. The growth of Canada and the U.S. were fueled by land clearing and logging  Deforestation propelled growth throughout North America  Cleared for farming  Then wood used to fuel furnaces of industry  Principal cause of deforestation in Canada was agriculture; now it’s logging and mining. 10-32

33. Housekeeping Items  We have Pam Shaw with us to briefly answer questions about the Mt. Arrowsmith Biosphere Reserve.

34. Housekeeping Items  Turn in your mid-term assignments.  More volunteer opportunities:  Commission on Ecosystem Management of International Union for the Conservation of Nature has a young professionals network for folks under 35. You will find the TOR of the group at www.iucn.org/about/union/commissions/cem/cem_work/young_professionals _network/  Organizations Henry spoke of: http://www.coterc.org/ and http://www.anuran.org/extend-your-stay.html.http://www.coterc.org/ http://www.anuran.org/extend-your-stay.html  BACKPACKING WITH A PURPOSE: Step outside of the classroom and into the real world for a truly immersive cultural experience. Operation Groundswell is a non-profit organization that runs international volunteering programs.  If you're into cultural exchange, fulfilling community service, and off-the- beaten path adventure, apply by our early bird deadline on February 26 th !  *A bursary fund is available for all students on six-week programs. Simply ask us for more information.  Check out where we go: www.operationgroundswell.com www.operationgroundswell.com  Six-week summer placements are open in the following countries and regions:  Ghana – Global Health  Middle East – Human Rights  Southeast Asia – Conservation or Youth Empowerment  India – Education or Gender Rights  Guatemala – Fair Trade Justice or Peace & Conflict  Peru – Health & Wellness or Environment

35. Housekeeping Items  We didn’t get to watch the short TED talk on community- based conservation last week: (http://www.ted.com/talks/john_kasaona_from_poachers_to_c aretakers?language=en#).http://www.ted.com/talks/john_kasaona_from_poachers_to_c aretakers?language=en#  Resources on mining in and based from Canada:  Britannia Beach mine tailings: (http://www.agf.gov.bc.ca/clad/britannia/background.html)http://www.agf.gov.bc.ca/clad/britannia/background.html  Diamond mining in the north – the Canadian Arctic Resources Committee: http://www.carc.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=92:diamonds- and-sustainable-development&catid=41:mining-and-sustainability&Itemid=153 and http://geology.com/articles/canada-diamond-mines/ http://www.carc.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=92:diamonds- and-sustainable-development&catid=41:mining-and-sustainability&Itemid=153 http://geology.com/articles/canada-diamond-mines/  Canadian companies in Latin America. See the film in the Library, Defensora: HD 9539 N52 G93 2013 10-35

36. Agriculture is the major cause of conversion of forests and grasslands  Agriculture covers more of the planet’s surface than forest  Principal driver of land conversion today – examples?  Swidden agriculture = small area of forest cleared and crops planted  Sustains only one or two seasons of planting  Soil depleted quickly  7 years required to replenish soil in original clearings to support crops or forests  is it sustainable? Seems to be a minor culprit 10-36

37. Livestock graze one-fourth of Earth’s land surface  Most cattle today raised in feedlots, but have traditionally been raised by grazing on open rangelands  Grazing can be sustainable if done carefully and at low intensity  Poorly managed grazing impacts savannah and grassland ecosystems  Ranchers and environmentalists have joined to preserve ranchland against development and urban sprawl  However, some tropical rainforest is being converted to rangeland or single-crop plantations 10-37

38. Bad practices and other pressures have led to deforestation  Deforestation has altered the landscapes and ecosystems of much or our planet  Forest can be harvested sustainably but it hasn’t always happened  Impacts are greatest in tropical areas and in dryland regions  Deforestation also adds carbon dioxide to atmosphere because forests are carbon sinks  Fastest rates of deforestation are in tropical rainforests of Latin America, Africa, and to some degree Asia, affecting species such as orangutans 10-38

39. Oil Sands Before and After…

40. Deforestation is proceeding rapidly in many developing nations 10-40 Uncut primary tropical forests still remain in many developing countries Advanced technology has allowed the exploitation of resources faster than in the past (often by foreign multinationals) Often these countries impose few or no restrictions on logging Often timber is extracted by foreign corporations

41. Logging here or there? Imagine you are an environmental activist protesting a logging operation that is cutting old-growth trees near your hometown. If the protest is successful, the company will move to a developing country and cut its primary forest instead.  Would you still protest the logging in your hometown?  Would you pursue any other approaches? weighing the issues 10-41

42. Forest Management Principles 10-42

43. Forest Management Principles  Forestry (silviculture) = a professional field of managing forests by balancing forests as ecosystems and as sources of wood products  Harvesting = the removal of material from the resource  Should not occur at a rate that exceeds the capability of the resource to replenish or regenerate itself (‘sustained yield’ – this is the theory, not necessarily the practice) 10-43

44. Public forests in Canada are managed for many purposes  Canadian Forest Service preserves timber on federal Crown lands  Provincial crown land used for timber and non- timber forest products (mainly timber)  Multiple use = policy where forests are to be managed for recreation, wildlife habitat, mineral extraction, and various other uses  wooded areas covered by shrubs and occasional taller trees (e.g. tundra) 10-44

45. Public forests in Canada are managed for many purposes (cont’d)  National Forest Strategy for 2003-2008 (couldn’t find a reference to since 2005; may have been decentralized to provinces)  Ecosystem-based management  Better environmental, social, and economic sustainability of forest communities through legislation and policies  Recognizing rights of Aboriginal peoples  Diversification of markets for forest products  Better skills and knowledge of forest practitioners  Engaging Canadians in sustainability through urban forests  Support private woodlots for forest sustainability  National forest reporting system 10-45

46. Today some managers try to practice ecosystem- based management, but still much disagreement about what it is  Ecosystem-based management = managing the harvesting of resources to minimize impact on the ecosystems and ecological processes  Carefully managing ecologically important areas  Protecting some forested areas  It is challenging for managers to determine how to implement this type of management  Ecosystems are complex, and our understanding of how they operate is limited 10-46

47. Adaptive management evolves and improves  Adaptive management = systematically testing different management approaches and aiming to improve methods based on experimentation  Monitoring results and adjusting methods as needed  A fusion of science and management  Time-consuming and complicated  A guiding principle for forest management in Canada  West Arm Demonstration Forest Experiments  Donna Creek Biodiversity Project  Grizzly Bear Habitat Project 10-47

48. Fire is a natural phenomenon in forests  Many ecosystems depend on fire  Ecosystems dependent of fire are adversely affected by its suppression  Ground fires = the litter layer itself burns, as opposed to crown fires  Crown fires = the upper tree canopy is ignited 10-48

49. Fire policy has stirred controversy  For over 100 years, all forest fires were suppressed  But many ecosystems depend on fires  Fire suppression allows woody accumulation, which produces kindling for future fires  Housing development near forests and climate change will increase fire risk 10-49

50. Fire policy has stirred controversy (cont’d)  Prescribed (controlled) burns = burning areas of forests under carefully controlled conditions  Effective  May get out of control  Impeded by public misunderstanding and political interference  Should development allowed in fire-prone areas? 10-50

51. Fire policy has stirred controversy (cont’d)  Removal of dead trees following a natural disturbance  Seems logical, but is really destructive  Snags (standing dead trees) provide nesting cavities for countless animals  Removing timber from recently burned areas increases erosion and soil damage  Promotes future fires 10-51

52. Sustainable forestry is gaining ground  Sustainable forestry certification = only products produced sustainably can be certified  International Organization for Standardization (ISO), Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) have different standards  Consumers look for logos to buy sustainably produced timber  Companies such as Home Depot sell sustainable wood as a result of environmental campaigns  Encourages better logging practices 10-52

53. Conclusion  Forests and other terrestrial biomes provide crucial ecosystem services that have economic value as well  Resources must be managed sustainably to avoid overexploitation and overharvesting  There are federal and regional agencies to oversee and manage publicly held land and natural resources  Resource management policies consider sustained yield, multiple use, timber production, recreation, wildlife habitat, and ecosystem integrity  Public support resulted in parks, wilderness areas and other reserves 10-53