Traditional Actors and Other Actors

Traditional Actors and Other Actors
Lsn 7

Agenda Classical International System (1648-1789)
Transitional International System ( ) Post- World War II International System ( ) Post- Cold War International System (1992-present)

Classical International System (1648-1789)
Zealous efforts of the Catholic Church to stamp out Protestantism led to bitter religious wars in the late 16th and early 17th Centuries The growing tensions erupted in the Thirty Years War ( ) which eventually involved every major European power and expanded from a religious to a political character Ferdinand II, emperor of the Holy Roman Empire

The war was the most destructive European conflict prior to the 20th Century Undisciplined soldiers committed acts of violence and brutality Economic and social life was disrupted One-third of the German population was killed In an effort to avoid tearing their societies apart, the European powers ended the war with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648

The Peace of Westphalia: Laid the foundations for a system of independent, competing states European states would henceforth regard each other as sovereign and equal Each state had the right to organize its own domestic and religious affairs Political and diplomatic affairs would be conducted by states acting in their own interests

Sovereignty does not necessarily mean that the state is able to control all the actions of its members at all times It does mean the state internally can claim a monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force as a possible tool in seeking to compel obedience and externally can claim a monopoly right to act vis-à-vis other states Max Weber famously defined the state as that organization that claims a monopoly over the legitimate use of violence

With the Peace of Westphalia, nation-states emerged as the world’s primary political organizations Nation-states have a single central government exercising sovereignty over a relatively fixed population within a relatively defined territory A “nation” refers to a a cultural or social entity whose members have some sense of a shared historical experience as well as shared destiny “State” and “nation-state” have come to be used interchangeably The former state of Yugoslavia has divided into several new states that reflect the national identities of their members

During the classical era of international relations there were a relatively small number of actors involved in international politics Royal families of the European nation-states along with their aristocratic elites King Louis XIV is credited with saying, “L'État, c'est moi” (“I am the State”).

While other nation-states existed, international politics was essentially European politics Power distributed among England, France, Austria, Sweden, Spain, Turkey, and later Prussia and Russia Aggressively minded states were deterred from seeking hegemony by the “balance of power” represented by the prospect of coming up against a coalition of states having equal or superior power France was often perceived as the major threat to the system’s stability with England serving as the chief “balancer”

The first half of the 17th Century ushered in the age of absolutism in which ultimate authority rested in the hands of a monarch who claimed to rule by divine right and was therefore responsible only to God The fact that decision-making rested in the hands of a few rulers who did not have any vast ideological cleavages (all were conservative and many were related by marriage) helped maintain stability A “minimum number of minimally different nation-states”

The combination of multiple power systems and flexibility of alignments made for a multipolar environment The classical era was not an era of peace, but one in which the violent international conflicts that did occur were relatively small affairs between monarchs rather than the total wars between societies that would follow in subsequent eras

Case Study Seven Years’ War

Seven Years’ War: Causes
After the explorations of the 15th, 16th, and 17th Centuries, the European powers protected their interests by building a series of fortified trading posts throughout the maritime regions Boundaries in the new colonies were disputed Commercial competition ultimately generated violence In 1746 French forces seized the English trading post at Madras, India In the Caribbean English pirates attacked Spanish vessels and French and English forces fought over the sugar islands The violence culminated in the Seven Years’ War ( )

Seven Years’ War: Causes
A global war In Europe, Britain and Prussia fought against France, Austria, and Russia In India, British and French allied with local rulers and fought each other In the Caribbean, the Spanish and French fought the British In North America, the Seven Years’ War merged with the on-going French and Indian War ( ) which pitted the British and French against each other

Seven Years’ War: Frederick the Great
Became king of Prussia in 1740 when he was 28 Had spent much of his life training as a soldier, visiting battlefields, and studying political history and politics Believed every man had an obligation to serve his state and that it was the king’s particular duty to develop policies that increased the power and standing of the state Strong lust for military glory His success lay in his purposeful use of authority and unwavering determination to make Prussia a European power

Frederick used the period of peace after the War of Austrian Succession to prepare his country and army for another war In August 1756, Frederick launched a preemptive attack against Saxony and Austria, hoping to force them to sue for peace before another country could intervene Was unable to achieve a quick, decisive victory and was now faced with fighting a coalition of powerful states French, Russian, and Austria forces began converging on Prussia

Frederick used his central position to defeat French, German, and Austrian armies in his Nov-Dec 1757 Rossbach-Leuthen campaign, secure Prussia’s boundaries of 1756, and gain a satisfactory negotiated peace In the process, he benefited greatly from Britain’s ability to support Prussia by defeating the French at sea and overseas

Seven Years’ War: British Navy
The British had the most powerful fleet and expeditionary forces of any of the combatants Furthermore, the British could rely on the Prussian army to do most of the fighting on the continent This allowed the British to bring overwhelming pressure against the French at sea

Seven Years’ War: British Navy
The British Navy blockaded the French ports to contain commerce raiders, intercept forces bound for the colonies, and forestall an invasion of England They raided the French Atlantic coast to destroy shipping and stores and to divert French forces from Germany They defeated the French Navy at Quiberon Bay which freed the British Navy to turn its attention to the French colonies The Battle of Quiberon Bay by Nicholas Pocock

Seven Years’ War: French and Indian War
The British, French, and Spanish all had colonial interests in North America and this competition led to war in 1754 The French and Indian War merged with the Seven Years’ War

Seven Years’ War: French and Indian War
The French came to place greater emphasis on the war in Europe than in the colonies and the British developed a numerical advantage The British Navy played an important role in blockading New France which was never a self-sufficient colony and could not survive without a steady stream of support from France In September 1760, the British finally conquered all of Canada when the combined Anglo-American force overwhelmed the French at Montreal

Seven Years’ War: Results
The victory in Canada allowed the British to divert thousands of troops elsewhere and ultimately win the Seven Years’ War Britain was now in a position to dominate world trade for the foreseeable future The Seven Years’ War paved the way for the establishment of the British Empire of the 19th Century

Seven Years’ War How does the Seven Years’ War represent the era of the classical international system in terms of: States acting according to self-interest European dominance Absolute authority Limited war Balance of power Multipolar

Transitional International System (1789-1945)
The American and French Revolutions ushered in a period of nationalism that gave the masses a greater voice in the political life of their country Mass democracy meant that the government had to be more sensitive to public opinion in formulating foreign policy, but also that the government could count on the total military and economic capabilities of their societies in pursuing that policy During the French Revolution, the levee en masse was used to mobilize the French population and resources

Nationalism led to the appearance of new states Freedom gained from colonial masters Political unification of culturally similar groups At the same time, nationalistic impulses touched off a new wave of European imperialism that subjugated people in Africa and elsewhere Simon Bolivar was one of the chief heroes in Latin America’s struggle for independence from Spain

Imperialism was effected not just through the force of arms, but also through trade, investment, and business activities that enabled the imperial powers to profit from subject societies and influence their affairs without going to the trouble of exercising direct political control Conflict could be avoided only as long as there was enough colonial territory to go around Colonial disputes in Africa was one of the causes of World War I

After World War I there were additional pressures for national “self-determination” and by the end of the transitional period there were over 50 nation-states In addition to increased nation-states, there were increasing numbers of people during this period In 1830 the world population reached 1 billion Just 100 years later it reached 2 billion

The increased industrialization that occurred in Europe and America during the 19th and early 20th Centuries contributed to a growing disparity in wealth between societies in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres The transitional era marked increasing interdependence, especially in the economic sphere The Global Depression of the 1920s and 1930s showed the dangers of this interdependence By the end of the 19th Century, the factory had become the predominant site of industrial production in Europe and America

The Industrial Revolution largely bypassed the Southern Hemisphere, creating an unprecedented “rich-poor gap” The Industrial Revolution skewed not just the distribution of wealth in favor of certain states, but also the distribution of power Economic advantage was easily converted to military advantage Several states dominated the rest of the system, but Britain was considered “first among equals”

Two non-European states rose to power during this transitional era The United States with its victory in the Spanish-American War (1898) Japan with its victory in the Russo-Japanese War (1905) The transitional era marked both the peak of the European-centered world and the beginning of its decline Retreat of Russian soldiers during the Russo-Japanese War

On Oct 24-25, 1917, the Bolsheviks stormed the Winter Palace, seized control of Russia, and transitioned the country to a socialist government After that Russia took on special significance in the international system as a communist power Vladimir Lenin headed the Bolsheviks, the radical wing of the Russian Social Democratic Party

Additional components of growing ideological conflict emerged during the transitional era with the rise of national socialism and fascism The transitional era marked the first time competition between rival political philosophies would be injected into international relations and would foreshadow the extreme polarization of the post-World War II era In May 1939, Mussolini and Hitler signed a ten-year Pact of Steel between Italy and Germany

Still the international system of the transitional era was flexible enough to remain multipolar in that countries reached across ideological philosophies to form alliances The British and American democracies joined forces with the communist Soviets against the fascist Germans and Italians in World War II Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin

The transitional era was marked by increases in total war Total war describes a war in which nations use all of their resources to destroy another nation’s ability to engage in war. French Revolution’s levee en masse US Civil War and Sherman’s March to the Sea World War I and the increased lethality that resulted from diverting advances in industrialization to military applications World War II and the atomic bomb

Traditional nation-states have difficulties handling problems of a global magnitude Nonstate actors began to appear The first intergovernmental international organization, The Central Committee for the Navigation of the Rhine, was created in 1815 The International Committee of the Red Cross was founded in 1863 The League of Nations was formed in 1919 1919 British cartoon criticizing the failure of the United States to join the League of Nations

Intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) Established on a regional or global basis by member governments in response to problems that transcend national boundaries and seem to call for institutional responses Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) Formed among private groups of individuals sharing specialized interests across national borders

Case Study Global Depression

Global Depression In the 1920s, the world economy was beginning to return to normal after World War I Beneath the surface however there were some serious flaws Tangled financial system Second order effects of technological advances Weakened agricultural base

Tangled Financial System
The Treaty of Versailles imposed heavy reparation payments on Germany and Austria to France and Britain Germany and Austria relied on US loans and investment capital to finance these reparations The French and British, in turn, relied on these reparations to repay loans to the US taken out during World War I By the summer of 1928, US lenders and investors started to withdraw capital from Europe which placed an intolerable strain on the system Germany Austria Loans Reparations required by Versailles Repayment of war loans Britain and France US

Second Order Effects of Technological Advances
Improvements in industrial processes reduced demand for some raw resources, causing an increase in supplies and a drop in demand Tires could now be made with reclaimed rubber which crippled the economies of the Dutch East Indies, Ceylon, and Malaysia which relied on exports of rubber Increased use of oil reduced demand for coal Synthetics reduced demand for cotton Artificial nitrogen reduced demand for nitrates from Chile

Weakened Agricultural Base
Agricultural production in Europe declined significantly during World War I, so farmers in the US, Canada, Argentina, and Australia increased their production After World War I, European farmers restored their production which created worldwide surpluses The situation was exacerbated by above average global harvests between 1925 and 1929 By 1929 the price of a bushel of wheat was its lowest in 400 years

Crash of 1929 The US had enjoyed an economic boom after World War I
Many people began buying stock on margin (paying as little as 3% of the stock’s price in cash and borrowing the remainder) By October 1929, indications of a worldwide economic slowdown and overvalued stock prices prompted investors to pull out of the market

Black Thursday (October 24)
Panic selling on the New York Stock Exchange caused stock prices to plummet Thousands lost their lifesavings By the end of the day, eleven financiers had committed suicide When lenders called in their loans, investors were forced to sell their securities at any price

Economic Contraction Spreads
There was no longer consumer demand for all the goods businesses produced Businesses cut back on production and laid off workers A vicious downward spiral of business failures and unemployment followed By 1932, industrial production was half of its 1929 level National income was down approximately 50% 44% of US banks had closed

Global Effects Much of the world depended on the export of US capital and the strength of US imports, so the US economic contraction had worldwide impact Germany and Japan were especially hard hit Toronto Stock Market after the day after the New York Stock Market crashes

Congressman Willis Hawley
Economic Nationalism The Great Depression destroyed international economic cooperation and governments began practicing economic nationalism Trade barriers, import quotas, import prohibitions US passed the Smoot-Hawley Tariff in 1930 raising duties on most manufactured products to prohibitive levels Governments of other nations retaliated with their own tariffs on US products Congressman Willis Hawley

Economic Nationalism The world economy was too interdependent for protectionism to work Between 1929 and 1932, world production went down 38% and trade dropped over 66% By 1933, unemployment in industrialized nations was five times higher than in 1929 Unemployed men vying for jobs at the American Legion Employment Bureau in Los Angeles during the Great Depression.

Global Depression How does the Global Depression represent the era of the transitional international system in terms of: Impact of industrialization Increased interdependence Shifting away from European dominance Growth of nonstate actors

Post- World War II International System (1946-1991)
Following World War II, the international system became bipolar as the United States and the Soviet Union matched competing ideologies in the Cold War The Cold War was a state of political tension and military rivalry that stopped short of full-scale war, but involved everything from the Olympics to the space race to indirect fighting through surrogates

The US and the USSR led two collective security organizations, NATO and the Warsaw Pact, that reflected the bipolar world Because a direct superpower confrontation was potentially catastrophic, the superpowers fought through surrogates in places like Korea, Vietnam, and Afghanistan

Still there were several tense moments of brinkmanship where the US and the USSR came close to confrontation such as the construction of the Berlin Wall and the Cuban Missile Crisis 1962 British cartoon showing Kennedy and Khrushchev arm wrestling on top of nuclear weapons

After the US-USSR arms race reached the point of Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD), the superpowers resigned themselves to maintain a “peaceful coexistence” A gradual loosening of bloc unity ensued with France exercising increased independence in the West and Romania and China in the East French President Charles de Gaulle declared, “France has no permanent friends, only permanent interests.”

One organization that offered an alternative to the post-World War II global reconstruction independent of the Cold War was the United Nations Charter finalized by delegates from 50 nations in 1945 Dedicated to maintaining international peace and security and promoting friendly relations among the world’s nations Still the ideological differences of the Cold War dominated the post-World War II international system and largely marginalized UN effectiveness

Because of widespread aversion to foreign rule, the two superpowers sought to gain influence over Third World nations rather than physically occupy them “Third World” countries were the newly independent nation-states, usually in the Southern Hemisphere, that were often underdeveloped or just developing

After World War II, many colonial powers granted independence to their former colonies The decolonization process doubled the number of nation-states from roughly 60 in 1945 to over 130 in 1973

In 1945 almost a quarter of the world’s people and its land were under colonial rule By 1973 less than 1% of the world’s population and territory still lacked self-governments However many of the newly independent states lacked the experience and institutions necessary to smoothly transition to self-government and in many cases civil war, corruption, and dictatorships followed independence

During the1980s, Cold War tensions increased as Ronald Reagan pursued a vigorous anti-Soviet policy While the US was spending at levels the USSR was finding difficult to match, the Soviets were having their own problems with their economy and the war in Afghanistan Soviet premier Mikhail Gorbachev tried to correct the situation with a series of reforms, but by the summer of 1990 the reforms had spent themselves Reagan delivering his “Mr. Gorbachev, Tear Down This Wall!” speech in 1987

Revolutions broke out throughout eastern Europe as people overthrow communist dictators in places like Poland, Bulgaria, and Romania and countries such as Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia broke apart The Berlin Wall came down on November 9, 1989 and East and West Germany united in 1990 The 1989 Romanian Revolution was a violent overthrow of the communist regime of Nicolae Ceauşescu

In August 1991, Soviet republics began declaring their independence from the USSR By the end of 1991, the USSR had ceased to exist The demise of the Soviet Union left the US as the world’s sole superpower Division of the former USSR into 15 independent states

On Aug 2, 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait The United Nations adopted resolutions condemning Iraq and authorizing the use of force Thirty-six countries (as well as Kuwait) contributed forces The end of the Cold War and Russia’s willingness to join the US in opposing Iraq created an unprecedented level of international cooperation and hopes for a more favorable “new world order”

The Truman Doctrine and the Greek Civil War
Case Study The Truman Doctrine and the Greek Civil War

George Kennan and Containment
Kennan was a Soviet expert and director of the State Department’s Policy Planning Staff In the July 1947 issue of Foreign Affairs he wrote an article under the pen name “Mr. X” titled “The Sources of Soviet Conduct.” He described the USSR as being driven by an aggressive and uncompromising ideology that would stop “only when it meets some unanswerable force.”

George Kennan and Containment
Kennan wrote that the US must adopt a “policy of firm containment designed to confront the Russians with unalterable counterforce at every point where they show signs of encroaching upon the interests of a peaceful and stable world.”

Greek Civil War During the German occupation of Greece during WWII, the Communists and other parts of the Greek Left formed a resistance army called the National People's Liberation Army (ELAS) By 1944, ELAS controlled large areas of the country and continued to have success against the British liberation force after the war.

Truman Doctrine On Feb 21, 1947, the British informed the US that they were pulling out of Greece. On March 3, the Greek government requested US aid. On March 12, President Truman announced the Truman Doctrine: “I believe that it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures.” Harry Truman

JUSMAPG On 22 May, Truman signed a bill authorizing $400 million in aid to Greece and Turkey. By 1952, Greek forces would receive $500 million in US aid. Even more important was LTG James Van Fleet and his 350-man Joint US Military Advisory and Planning Group. Grumman Avengers and Curtis Helldivers aboard the USS Leyte preparing for operations over Greece in 1948

Success Van Fleet set out to retrain and reorganize the Greek Army and cut off the flow of supplies reaching guerrillas from Yugoslavia, Albania, and Bulgaria On Oct 16, 1949, Greece’s Communist leaders announced a cease-fire “As in Greece, the enemy strikes from sanctuary”

UN Special Committee on the Balkans
In addition to the US effort, Greek Civil War involved the United Nations Special Committee on the Balkans (UNSCOB) First attempt by the UN to deploy an observation mission in the midst of an armed conflict In Aug 1946 the USSR vetoed a proposal to establish an investigative commission to look into the violence along the Greek-Albania border In December, Greece brought the complaint before the Security Council and the US repeated the earlier proposal This time the USSR acquiesced to the commission but proceeded to repeatedly veto resolutions based on its findings of Albanian, Yugoslav, and Bulgarian support to the Greek guerrillas

The US was able to move the matter from the Security Council to the General Assembly to avoid a Soviet veto and on October 21, 1947, the UN created the eleven member Special Committee on the Balkans (UNSCOB) Two of the nations appointed to UNSCOB, Poland and the USSR, refused to participate UNSCOB functioned until December 7, 1951, when it was dissolved by the General Assembly and replaced on January 23, 1952 by a Balkan Sub-Commission of the standing Peace Observation Commission In each of its annual reports, UNSCOB had found continuing aid to the guerilla forces in Greece

The UNSCOB was the first UN mission created directly as a result of Cold War competition It was plagued by a lack of cooperation from the communist governments who refused to allow it to operate in their territories While UNSCOB had no great impact on the Greek Civil War, it did teach the UN valuable lessons about the importance of obtaining consent from all local parties before deploying on a peacekeeping mission and the necessity of political impartiality once deployed

The Truman Doctrine and the Greek Civil War
How does the Truman Doctrine and the Greek Civil War represent the Post- World War II international system in terms of: Competing ideologies The bipolar world Superpowers militarily confronting each other through surrogates The role of the UN

Post- Cold War International System (1992-present)
The collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War abruptly opened up possibilities for trans-global connections that had previously been limited “Globalization” is the increasing interconnectedness of all parts of the world in all areas, most notably communication, commerce, culture, and politics It is welcomed by some and vilified by others

“We stand today at a unique and extraordinary moment. The crisis in the Persian Gulf, as grave as it is, also offers a rare opportunity to move toward an historic period of cooperation. Out of these troubled times, …. a new world order can emerge: a new era -- freer from the threat of terror, stronger in the pursuit of justice, and more secure in the quest for peace. An era in which the nations of the world, East and West, North and South, can prosper and live in harmony.…

….A hundred generations have searched for this elusive path to peace, while a thousand wars raged across the span of human endeavor. Today that new world is struggling to be born, a world quite different from the one we’ve known. A world where the rule of law supplants the rule of the jungle. A world in which nations recognize the shared responsibility for freedom and justice. A world where the strong respect the rights of the weak.” President George H. W. Bush Sept 11, 1990

Cold War threats were potentially catastrophic but they were also measurable and somewhat predictable The bipolar structure and the desire to avoid superpower confrontation had provided a certain degree of order and stability The post Cold War period was much more ambiguous and uncertain and many new threats emerged CIA Director James Woolsey described the post-Cold War environment by saying, “We have slain a large dragon (the U.S.S.R.) — but we now live in a jungle filled with a bewildering variety of poisonous snakes. In many ways, the dragon was easier to keep track of.”

The Cold War structure had kept in check ethnic divisions in many countries and limited military interventions The end of the Cold War changed all that UN Secretary General Boutros Boutros-Ghali advocated the “legitimate involvement” of the UN in “peace enforcement” and “peacemaking” operations After the Cold War, the United Nations went from an average of three or four peacekeeping operations a year to 13 in December 1992

Bosnia Somalia Rwanda East Timor Kosovo Liberia Sudan Rwandan children in the refugee camp at Ndosha, Zaire

“In a globalized war, bad things that happen in other countries spread more quickly to our shores. Genocides spawn refugees, who destabilize their neighbors. Corruption sparks financial meltdowns, which rock the world economy. Pandemics hopscotch across the globe.” Peter Beinart in explaining why the US intervened in Kosovo where there was “no direct threat to the US” (Time, 23 Apr 2007, 28)

The United Nations Charter proclaims one of the UN’s principle purposes as being “to maintain international peace and security” Sometimes the UN effectively intervened in these crises, sometimes it didn’t Same for the United States The US found that its status as world economic and military superpower would not necessarily equate to unchallenged world leadership The US would meet a host of challenges within the UN and from non-governmental organizations as well as from new enemies

UN Charter Chapter VI “Pacific Settlement of Disputes” Security Council can investigate any dispute, or any situation which might lead to international friction or give rise to a dispute Council can recommend action but the recommendations are not binding on its members UN Charter Chapter VII Council is not limited to recommendations Can take action, including the use of armed force, to maintain or restore international peace and security Peacekeeping operations often are called “Chapter VI and a half”

Limitations of the UN No army of its own Reliant on ad hoc contributions from its members Can never divorce itself from the political agendas of its members Inadequately trained staff of military professionals and managers

The Post Cold War era included an ever-widening gap between rich industrialized nations (mostly in the Northern Hemisphere) and poor agricultural ones (mostly in the Southern Hemisphere) The goal of all poor nations is economic growth, but most lack the requirements for industrial development Trapped in a cycle of poverty: lack of capital resulting from low production leads to low savings which in turn means little or no available capital for future development projects

The collapse of communism in the USSR and Eastern Europe opened up huge economic markets On the other hand West Germany’s previously booming economy struggled as it tried to integrate the much poorer former East Germany In 2004, the EU swelled to 25 members including the former Soviet republics of Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia As Germany moved its capital from Bonn to Berlin, construction projects were rampant

Failed states became fertile ground for terrorist safe havens, black market activities, humanitarian crises, and general chaos “Lack of state capacity in poor countries has come to haunt the developed world much more directly….. Suddenly the ability to shore up or to create from whole cloth missing state capabilities and institutions has risen to the top of the global agenda and seems likely to be a major condition for security in important parts of the world. Thus state weakness is both a national and an international issue of the first order.” Francis Fukuyama, State-Building, x-xi

Case Study September 11

Islamism As globalization spread, many Muslims became skeptical about European and American models of economic development and political and cultural norms Blamed the Western models for their own economic and political problems as well as for secularization and its attendant breakdown of traditional social and religious values Saw the Muslim world as slipping into a state of decline brought about by the abandonment of Islamic traditions and many blamed the US The Saudi Arabian Mutaween, or religious police, enforce the Islamic dress code

Islamist Reaction Many saw the solution to the problems faced by Muslim societies as being a revival of Islamic identity, values, and power Most sought to bring about change through peaceful means, but an extremist minority has claimed a mandate from God that calls for violent transformations Supporters of Hizbut Tahrir, a hardline Muslim group, protesting in front of the US Embassy in Jakarta, Indonesia

Jihad Convinced that the Muslim world is under siege, extremists used the concept of the jihad to rationalize and legitimize terrorism and revolution Jihad is sometimes called the Sixth Pillar of Islam and is an exertion or struggle in achieving the ways of Allah It invokes the right and duty to defend Islam and the Islamic community from unjust attack Members of the Islamic Jihad’s military wing, the Al-Quds Brigade, in Gaza

Extremist Rhetoric “God has blessed a group of vanguard Muslims, the forefront of Islam, to destroy America." Osama bin Laden in a videotaped statement broadcast by Al Jazeera, October 7, 2001 “We issue the following fatwa to all Muslims: The ruling to kill the Americans and their allies -- civilians and military -- is an individual duty for every Muslim who can do it in any country in which it is possible to do it....We -- with God's help -- call on every Muslim who believes in God and wishes to be rewarded to comply with God's order to kill the Americans and plunder their money wherever and whenever they find it.” World Islamic Front Statement, February 23, 1998

Clash of Civilizations
“On both sides the interaction between Islam and the West is seen as a clash of civilizations.” Samuel Huntington

Huntington’s Civilizations
Western Slavic- Orthodox Japanese Sinic Latin American Islamic African Hindu

Osama bin Laden Osama bin Laden began his militancy in response to the 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan He helped found the Maktab al-Khadamāt (MAK) which recruited and funded mujahideen to fight the Soviets Ironically, the US also supported the mujahideen based on the Cold War philosophy that “the enemy of my enemy is my friend”

al-Qaeda Part of the post-Desert Storm US military presence at Prince Sultan Air Base, 80 km south of Riyadh In 1988, bin Laden split from the MAK and formed a new group comprised of some of the most militant mujahideen that would become the al-Qaeda terrorist group With the US involvement in Desert Storm and its subsequent continued presence in Saudi Arabia, home of the Muslim holy sites of Mecca and Medina, bin Laden became irreconcilably infuriated by the Western influence

September 11, 2001 On Sept 11, 2001, 19 men affiliated with al-Qaeda hijacked four planes and crashed two into the World Trade Towers in New York City and one into the Pentagon The fourth plane crashed in Pennsylvania after passengers attacked the terrorists

Terrorism The deliberate and systematic use of violence against civilians with the aim of advancing political, religious, or ideological cause Terrorism is not a new phenomenon, but its impact has been magnified in a globalized world distinguished by rapid technological advances in transportation, communications, and weapons development Worldwide television coverage has transformed terrorism by expanding its visibility and impact

al-Qaeda’s International Presence at the Time of the Sept 11 Attack

Global War on Terrorism
On Sept 20, President Bush addressed the nation and declared “Our war on terror begins with al Qaeda, but it does not end there. It will not end until every terrorist group of global reach has been found, stopped and defeated… Our response involves far more than instant retaliation and isolated strikes. Americans should not expect one battle, but a lengthy campaign, unlike any other we have ever seen. It may include dramatic strikes, visible on TV, and covert operations, secret even in success….

Global War on Terrorism
… We will starve terrorists of funding, turn them one against another, drive them from place to place, until there is no refuge or no rest. And we will pursue nations that provide aid or safe haven to terrorism. Every nation, in every region, now has a decision to make. Either you are with us, or you are with the terrorists. From this day forward, any nation that continues to harbor or support terrorism will be regarded by the United States as a hostile regime.”

Operation Enduring Freedom
The Sept 11 attack was quickly traced to Osama bin Laden who had been operating from Afghanistan since his 1996 expulsion from Saudi Arabia On Oct 7, 2001, the US led a coalition attack into Afghanistan to destroy terrorist training camps and infrastructure, capture al-Qaeda leaders, and eliminate terrorist activities in Afghanistan By mid-March 2002, the Taliban government had been removed from power and the al-Qaeda network in Afghanistan had been severely crippled CENTCOM Commander General Tommy Franks explains Operation Enduring Freedom

Nontraditional Actors
Global media Nongovernmental organizations Global corporations

CBS News correspondent Eric Sevareid, 1955
The Old Way 1938: the first regular broadcast of daily news began on radio, with the World Today program on CBS for 15 minutes every evening, 1948: the “CBS TV News” began 1963: CBS Evening News expanded from 15 to 30 minutes, followed shortly by NBC, and then by ABC in 1967 1968: CBS began the 60 Minutes news magazine/documentary weekly show CBS News correspondent Eric Sevareid, 1955

24/7 News 1980: Cable News Network (CNN) became the world's first 24-hour cable television news channel 1996: MSNBC and Fox News Channel began 24-hour news Collectively, expanded television news coverage creates “the CNN effect” which affects political, diplomatic, and military decision making on a global level

al Jazeera Founded in 1996 and based in Qatar
Fastest growing network among Arab communities and Arabic speaking people around the world Focuses primarily on news coverage and analysis with a markedly anti-Western slant

bin Laden and al Jazeera
“For someone who scorned modernity and globalization, and who took refuge in an Islamic state that banned television, bin Laden proved remarkably adept at public diplomacy. In the wake of the September 11 attacks, bin Laden turned to al Jazeera to reach the two audiences that were essential to his plans– the Western news media and the Arab masses.” David Hoffman, Beyond Public Diplomacy

Influence of the Media Agenda setting Shaping public opinion
Policy-makers Tiananmen Square, June 4, 1989

Agenda Setting “The mass media may not be successful in telling people what to think, but the media are stunningly successful in telling their audience what to think about.” “If a tree falls in the woods and CNN doesn’t cover it, did it really fall?” Bruce W. Jentleson, American Foreign Policy: The Dynamics of Choice in the 21st Century

Shaping Public Opinion
“Framing” How the media casts an issue affects the sustentative judgments people make about the issue. “Priming” The priority the media gives to an issue affects the priority people give to the issue.

Donald Rumsfeld on the Media Coverage of OIF
“And interestingly… we have seen mood swings in the media from highs to lows to highs and back again, sometimes in a single 24-hour period.” “For some, the massive volume of television - and it is massive - and the breathless reports can seem to be somewhat disorienting. Fortunately, my sense is that the American people have a very good center of gravity and can absorb and balance what they see and hear.”

Policy-makers Policy-makers often ask themselves “What will the media think?” as they formulate a course of action Political “spin” becomes extremely important

Case Study Somalia

Somalia Drought, famine, clan violence, corruption, and inefficient government had created a humanitarian crisis in Somalia in the 1990s. One of the main sources of power had been the control of food supplies. Hijacked food was used to secure the loyalty of clan leaders, and food was routinely exchanged with other countries for weapons. In the early 1990’s up to 80% of internationally provided food was stolen. Between 1991 and 1992 over 300,000 Somalis were estimated to have died of starvation. UN relief efforts were unsuccessful, largely due to looting. The U.N. asked its member nations for assistance.

Somalia In December 1992, President George Bush proposed to the U.N. that United States combat troops lead the intervention force. The U.N. accepted this offer and 25,000 U.S. troops were deployed to Somalia.

Somalia: Entry Stark images from Somalia, transmitted to the world via satellite, helped shape public opinion and pressured the United Nations to take action One famous picture was this one of Aabiba Nuur, who weighed only 46 pounds

Somalia: Entry “And it was pictures -- of spectral women and withered children -- that launched the rescue mission in Somalia. It may have been awkward to have cameras meet the troops when they landed, but wasn't it also appropriate? In a sense it was cameras that had sent them there.” Time Magazine, Dec. 28, 1992

Somalia: Exit Two Black Hawk helicopters were shot down in the battle of Mogadishu in Oct 1993 Pictures included a US soldier being dragged through the streets of Mogadishu

Somalia: Perception Nineteen US soldiers were killed and over 70 were wounded Conservative estimates say more than 500 Somalians were killed and over 1,000 injured "The perception of an operation can be as important to success as the execution of that operation." MG Charles McClain

Case Study: Somalia “We went into Somalia because of horrible television images; we will leave Somalia because of horrible television images.” Marianne Means “We had been drawn to this place by television images; now we were being repelled by them. The President immediately conducted a policy review that resulted in a plan for withdrawal over the next six months.” Colin Powell

Sudan and Somalia “As the contrasting responses to the seemingly similar Somalia and Sudan cases suggest, media coverage can have a significant impact.” Arnold Kanter, Intervention Decisionmaking in the Bush Administration Refugees in Sudan

Traditional Actors and Other Actors

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