1. APES Unit 2 Abiotic and Biotic Parts of Ecosystems
La Cañada High School
Living in the Environment by Miller, 11th Edition

2. Matter and Energy Resources
Chapter 3
Matter and Energy Resources

3. Matter and Energy Resources: Types and Concepts
3-1: Matter: Forms, Structure, and Quality
3-2: Energy: Forms and Quality
3-3: Physical and Chemical Changes and the Law of Conservation of Matter
3-4: Nuclear Changes
3-5: The Two Ironclad Laws of Energy
3-6: Connections: Matter and Energy Laws and Environmental Problems

4. Matter Forms, Structure, and Quality
Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space.
Matter is found in two chemical forms: elements and compounds.
Various elements, compounds, or both can be found together in mixtures.

5. Solid, Liquid, and Gas

6. Atoms, Ions, and Molecules
Atoms: The smallest unit of matter that is unique to a particular element.
Ions: Electrically charged atoms or combinations of atoms.
Molecules: Combinations of two or more atoms of the same or different elements held together by chemical bonds.

7. What are Atoms?
The main building blocks of an atom are positively charged PROTONS, uncharged NEUTRONS, and negatively charged ELECTRONS
Each atom has an extremely small center, or nucleus, containing protons and neutrons.

9. Atomic Number and Mass Number.
The number of protons in the nucleus of each of its atoms.
Mass number
The total number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus.

10. Elements are organized through the periodic table by classifications of metals, nonmetals, and metalloids

11. Inorganic Compounds All compounds not Organic Ionic Compounds
Sodium chloride (NaCl)
Sodium bicarbonate (NaOH)
Covalent compounds
Hydrogen(H2)
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
Ammonia (NH3)

12. Formation of Ionic Compounds
Transfer of electrons between the atoms of these elements result in drastic changes to the elements involved
Sodium and chlorine serves as a example
Sodium is a rather "soft" metal solid, with a silver-gray color
Chlorine is greenish colored gas
Sodium chloride, commonly called table salt -- a white, crystalline, and brittle solid

13. Inorganic Compounds
The earth’s crust is composed of mostly inorganic minerals and rock
The crust is the source of all most nonrenewable resource we use: fossil fuels, metallic minerals, etc.
Various combinations of only eight elements make up the bulk of most minerals.

14. Nonmetallic Elements.
Carbon (C), Oxygen (O), Nitrogen (N), Sulfur (S), Hydrogen (H), and Phosphorous (P)
Nonmetallic elements make up about 99% of the atoms of all living things

15. Covalent Bonds
The individual atoms are atoms of chlorine with only their valence electrons shown. 
Note that each chlorine atom has only seven valence electrons, but really wants eight. 
When each chlorine atom shares its unpaired electron, both atoms are tricked into thinking each has a full valence of eight electrons.
Notice that the individual atoms have full freedom from each other, but once the bond is formed, energy is released, and the new chlorine molecule (Cl2) behaves as a single particle.

16. A covalent bond is typically formed by two non-metals
Non-metals have similar electronegativities
Neither atom is "strong" enough to steal electrons from the other
Therefore, the atoms must share the electrons. 

17. Organic Compounds
Compounds containing carbon atoms combined with each other with atoms of one or more other elements such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, etc.
Hydrocarbons
Compounds of carbon and hydrogen
Chlorofluorocarbons
Carbon, chlorine, and fluorine atoms
Simple carbohydrates
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen combinations

18. Organic Compounds
Hydrocarbons Chlorofluorocarbons

19. Biological Organic Compounds
Carbohydrates (Glucose) Protein (Cytochrome P450)

20. Biological Organic Compounds
Lipid (Triglyceride) Nucleic Acid (DNA)

21. Earth’s Crust

22. Matter Quality
Matter quality is a measure of how useful a matter resource is, based in its availability and concentration.
High quality matter is organized, concentrated, and usually found near the earth’s crust.
Low quality is disorganized, dilute, and has little potential for use as a matter resource.

23. Quality Counts
LOW QUALITY
HIGH QUALITY

24. Energy
Energy is the capacity to do work and transfer heat.

25. Kinetic Energy
Kinetic energy is the energy that matter has because of its mass and its speed or velocity.
It is energy in action or motion.
Wind, flowing streams, falling rocks, electricity, moving car - all have kinetic energy.

26. Potential Energy
Potential energy is stored energy that is potential available for use.
Potential energy can be changed to kinetic energy.

27. Electromagnetic Spectrum
The range of electromagnetic waves, which differ in wavelength (distance between successive peaks or troughs) and energy content.

28. Energy Quality Very High High Moderate Low
Electricity, Nuclear fission, and Concentrated sunlight.
High
Hydrogen gas, Natural gas, and Coal.
Moderate
Normal sunlight, and wood.
Low
Low-temperature heat and dispersed geothermal energy.

29. Law of Conservation of Matter and Energy
In any nuclear change, the total amount of matter and energy involved remains the same.
E = mc2
The energy created by the release of the strong nuclear forces for 1 kilogram of matter will produce enough energy to elevated the temperature of all the water used in the Los Angeles basin in one day by 10,000oC

30. Natural Radioactive Decay
Natural radioactive decay is a nuclear change in which unstable isotopes spontaneously emit fast moving particles, high energy radiation, or both at a fixed rate.

31. Alpha, Beta, Gamma Rays.

32. Nuclear Fission
Nuclear fission is a nuclear change in which nuclei of certain isotopes with large mass numbers are split apart into lighter nuclei when struck by neutrons, each fission releases two or three more neutrons and energy.

33. What is Nuclear Fusion?
Nuclear Fusion is a nuclear change in which two isotopes of light elements, such as hydrogen, are forced together at extremely high temperatures until they fuse to form a heavier nucleus, releasing energy in the process.

34. The First Law of Thermodynamics
In all physical can chemical changes, energy is neither created nor destroyed, but it may be converted from one form to another.

35. The Second Law of Thermodynamics.
Physical, chemical, and electrical energy can be completely changed into heat.
But the reverse (heat into physical energy, for example) cannot be fully accomplished without outside help or without an inevitable loss of energy in the form of irretrievable heat.
This does not mean that the energy is destroyed; it means that it becomes unavailable for producing work.

36. High Waste or High-Throughput Societies
Most of today’s advanced industrialized countries are high waste or high throughput societies
They attempt to sustain ever-increasing economic growth by increasing the throughput of matter and energy resources in their economic systems.

37. Matter Recycling Societies
A stopgap solution to this problem is to convert an unsustainable high-throughput society to a matter-recycling society.

38. Low Waste Societies
The three scientific laws governing matter and energy changes indicate that the best long-term solution to our environmental and resource problems is to shift from a society based on maximizing matter and energy flow to a sustainable low waste society.

39. Ecology, Ecosystems, and Food Webs
Chapter 4
Ecology, Ecosystems, and Food Webs

40. Chapter 4 Ecology, Ecosystems, and Food Webs
4-1 Ecology and Life
4-2 Earth’s Life-Support Systems
4-3 Ecosystem Concept
4-4 Food Webs and Energy Flow in Ecosystems
4-5 How do Ecologists learn about Ecosystems?
4-6 Ecosystem Services and Sustainability

41. 4-1 Ecology and Life
Ecology- study of relationships between organisms and their environment
Ecology examines how organisms interact with their nonliving (abiotic) environment such as sunlight, temperature, moisture, and vital nutrients
Biotic interaction among organisms, populations, communities, ecosystems, and the ecosphere

42. Distinction between Species
Wild species- one that exists as a population of individuals in a natural habitat, ideally similar to the one in which its ancestors evolved
Domesticated species- animals such as cows, sheep, food crops, animals in zoos

43. Vocabulary
Population- a group of interacting individuals of the same species that occupy a specific area at the same time
Genetic diversity- populations that are dynamic groups that change in size, age distribution, density, and genetic composition as a result of changes in environmental conditions

44. Habitat – the place where a population or individual organism naturally lives
Community – a complex interacting network of plants, animals, and microorganisms
Ecosystem – community of different species interacting with one another and with their nonliving environment of matter and energy
Ecosphere or Biosphere – all of earth's ecosystems

45. What is Life?
All life shares a set of basic characteristics that enable growth, survival, and reproduction
Living organisms are made of cells that have highly organized internal structure and functions
Living organisms have characteristic types of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecules in each cell

46. Living organisms capture and transform matter and energy from their environment to supply their needs for survival, growth, and reproduction
Living organisms maintain favorable internal conditions, despite changes in their external environment through homeostasis, if not overstressed
Living organisms perpetuate themselves through reproduction
Living organisms adapt to changes in environmental conditions through the process of evolution

47. 4-2 Earth’s Life-Support Systems
The Earth contains
several layers or
concentric spheres
Core- innermost zone, mostly iron, solid inner part, surrounded by a liquid core of molten material
Mantle- surrounded by a thick, solid zone, largest zone, rich with iron, silicon, oxygen, and magnesium, very hot
Crust- outermost and thinnest zone, eight elements make up 98.5% of the weight of the earth’s crust
Lithosphere- earth’s crust and upper mantle

48. Atmosphere- thin envelope of air around the planet
Troposphere- extends about 17 kilometers above sea level, contains nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), and is where weather occurs
Stratosphere kilometers above sea level, lower portions contains enough ozone (O3) to filter out most of the sun’s ultraviolet radiation

49. Hydrosphere- consists of the earth’s liquid water, ice, and water vapor in the atmosphere

50. What Sustains Life on Earth?
Life on the earth depends on three interconnected factors
One-way flow of high-quality energy from the sun
Cycling of matter or nutrients (all atoms, ions, or molecules needed for survival by living organisms), through all parts of the ecosphere
Gravity, which allows the planet to hold onto its atmosphere and causes the downward movement of chemicals in the matter cycles

51. Solar Energy Sun 72% of solar energy warms the lands
Fireball of hydrogen (72%) and helium (28%)
Nuclear fusion
Sun existed for 6 Billion years. Sun will stay for another 6.5 billion years.
72% of solar energy warms the lands
0.023% of solar energy is captured by green plants and bacteria
Powers the cycling of matter and weather system
Distributes heat and fresh water

52. www.bom.gov.au/lam/climate/levelthree/ climch/clichgr1.htm

53. Type of Nutrients
Nutrient – Any atom ion, or molecule an organism needs to live grow or reproduce
Ex: carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen… etc
Macronutrient – nutrient that organisms need in large amount
Ex: phosphorus, sulfur, calcium, iron … etc
Micronutrient – nutrient that organism need in small amount
Ex: zinc, sodium, copper… etc

54. Climate
long-term weather; main factor determining what type of life will be in a certain area.
Biomes Large regions characterized by distinct climate, and specific life-forms

55. Ecosphere Separation
The Ecosphere and it’s ecosystem can be separated into two parts
Abiotic- nonliving, components
Ex: air, water, solar energy
Physical and chemical factors that influence living organisms
Biotic- living, components
Ex: plants and animals

56. Range of Tolerance
The existence, abundance, and distribution of a species in an ecosystem are determined by the levels of one or more physical or chemical factors
Differences in genetic makeup, health, and age.
Ex: trout has to live in colder water than bass

57. Limiting Factor Principle
Too much or too little of any abiotic factor can limit growth of population, even if all the other factors are at optimum (favorable) range of tolerance.
Ex: If a farmer plants corn in phosphorus-poor soil, even if water, nitrogen are in a optimum levels, corn will stop growing, after it uses up available phosphorus.

58. Dissolved Oxygen Content
Amount of oxygen gas dissolved in a given volume of water at a particular temperature and pressure.
Limiting factor of aquatic ecosystem

59. Salinity
Amount of salt dissolved in given volume of water

60. Living Organisms in Ecosystem
1. Producers or autotrophs- makes their own food from compounds obtained from environment.
Photosynthesis- ability of producer to convert sunlight, abiotic nutrients to sugars and other complex organic compounds.
Chlorophyll- traps solar energy and converts into chemical energy.
Carbon dioxide+water+solar energy  glucose + oxygen

61. Producers transform
1-5% of absorbed energy into chemical energy (glucose), which is stored in complex carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acid in plant tissue

62. Chemosynthesis-
Bacteria can convert simple compounds from their environment into more complex nutrient compound without sunlight
Ex: becomes consumed by tubeworms, clams, crabs
Bacteria can survive in great amount of heat

63. Consumers or Heterotrophs
Obtain energy and nutrient by feeding on other organisms or their remains

64. 4. Tertiary (higher-level) consumer- feed only on other carnivores
2. Herbivores (plant-eaters) or primary consumers- they feed directly on producers
Deer, goats, rabbits
3. Carnivores (meat eater) or secondary consumers-feed only on primary consumer
Lion, Tiger
4. Tertiary (higher-level) consumer- feed only on other carnivores
Wolf
5. Omnivores- consumers that eat both plants and animals
Ex: pigs, humans, bears

65. 6. Scavengers- feed on dead organisms
Vultures, flies, crows, shark
7. Detritivores- live off detritus
Detritus parts of dead organisms and wastes of living organisms.
8. Detritus feeders- extract nutrients from partly decomposed organic matter plant debris, and animal dung.
9. Decomposers- Fungi and bacteria that breaks down and recycles organic materials from wastes of all organisms. Dead organisms waste to nutrients
Food sources for worms and insects
Biodegradable- can be broken down by decomposers

66. Respiration
Aerobic respiration- uses oxygen to convert organic nutrients back into carbon dioxide and water
Glucose + oxygen  Carbon dioxide + water + energy
Anaerobic respiration or fermentation-form of cellular respiration, decomposers get energy they need through breakdown of glucose in oxygen

67. Decomposers complete the cycle of matter by breaking down organic waste, dead animal. Plant litter and garbage.
Whether dead or alive organisms are potential (standard) sources of food for other organisms.
Food Chain-Series of organisms in which each eats or decomposes the preceding one

68. Second Law of Energy
Organisms need high quality chemical energy to move, grow and reproduce, and this energy is converted into low-quality heat that flows into environment
Trophic levels or feeding levels
Producer is a first trophic level
primary consumer is second trophic level
secondary consumer is third
Decomposers process detritus from all trophic levels.

69. Food web-complex network of interconnected food chains.
Food web and chains are one-way flow of energy and cycling of nutrients through ecosystem.

70. Food Webs
Grazing food webs: energy and nutrients move from plants to herbivores, then through an array of carnivores, and eventually to decomposers
Detrital food webs: organic waste material or detritus is the major food source, and energy flows mainly from producers (plants) to decomposers and detritivores.

71. Biomass Dry weight of all organic matter contained in organisms.
Biomass is measured in dry weight because water is not a nutrient or a source of energy
Ex: biomass of first trophic levels are dry mass of all producers
On successive trophic level, biomass is neither eaten, digested, nor absorbed; it simple goes through the intestinal tract of consumer and is expelled as fecal waste.
Useable energy transferred as biomass varies from 5%-20%

72. Pyramid of Energy Flow
More steps or trophic levels in food chain or web, greater loss of usable energy as energy flows through trophic levels
More trophic levels the Chains or Webs have more energy is consumed after each one. That’s why food chains and webs rarely have more than 4 steps

73. Pyramid of biomass- storage of biomass at various trophic levels of ecosystem
NOTE: After every trophic level less and less energy is transferred
Producer gets the most amount of energy, that’s why there is a lot of producers, herbivores consume producers however they need to consume they get less energy then producers by consuming them
Carnivores get much less energy than herbivores, that’s why there are more herbivores than carnivores, and carnivores

74. Pyramid of Numbers
Number of organisms at each trophic level

75. Gross primary productivity (GPP)- rate in which producers convert solar energy into chemical energy as biomass in a given amount of time

76. Net primary productivity (NPP)- Rate in which energy for use by consumers is stored in new biomass.
Measured in kilocalories per square meter per year or grams in biomass
NPP is limit determining the planet’s carrying capacity for all species.
59% of NPP occurs in land / 41% occurs in ocean

77. Ecological Efficiency
Percentage of energy transferred from one trophic level to another.
10% ecological efficiency
green plants transfer 10,000 units of energy from sun
only about 1000 energy will be available for herbivores
100 units for primary consumer
10 units for secondary consumer

78. Ways to unravel workings of ecosystem
Field research- going into nature and observing ecosystem
Laboratory research- observe and making measurements under laboratory condition
System analysis- view ecosystem and study their structure and functions (1960s)

79. FIELD RESEARCH
Going into nature and observing/measuring the structure of ecosystems
Majority of what we know now comes from this type
Disadvantage is that it is expensive, time-consuming, and difficult to carry out experiments due to many variables

80. LABORATORY RESEARCH
Set up, observation, and measurement of model ecosystems under laboratory conditions
Conditions can easily be controlled and are quick and cheap
Disadvantage is that it is never certain whether or not result in a laboratory will be the same as a result in a complex, natural ecosystem

81. SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Simulation of ecosystem rather than study real ecosystem
Helps understand large and very complicated systems

82. Why is the Ecosystem important?
Ecosystem services: natural services or earth capital that support life on the earth and are essential to the quality of human life and to the functioning of the world’s economies
Ecosystem services include:
Controlling and moderating climate
Providing and renewing air, water, soil
Recycling vital nutrients through chemical cycling

83. Why is the Ecosystem important?
Providing renewable and nonrenewable energy sources and nonrenewable minerals
Furnishing people with food, fiber, medicines, timber, and paper
Pollinating crops and other plant species
Absorbing, diluting, and detoxifying many pollutants and toxic chemicals
Helping control populations of pests and disease organisms
Slowing erosion and preventing flooding
Providing biodiversity of genes and species

84. Why Is Biodiversity So Important?
Biodiversity is the variety of different species, genetic variability among individuals within each species, and variety of ecosystems
Gives us food, wood, fibers, energy, raw materials, industrial chemicals, medicines, and provides for billions of dollars in the global economy

85. Why Is Biodiversity So Important?
Provides recycling, purification, and natural pest control
Represents the millions of years of adaptation, and is raw material for future adaptations

86. What are the two principles of ecosystem sustainability?
Use renewable solar energy as energy source
Efficiently recycle nutrients organisms need for survival, growth, and reproduction

87. Nutrient Cycles and Soils
Chapter 5
Nutrient Cycles and Soils

88. Matter Cycling in Ecosystems
Nutrient cycles or Biogeochemical cycles, involve natural processes that recycle nutrients in various chemical forms in a cyclic manner from the nonliving environment to living organisms and back to non living environment again.

89. Major Types of Nutrient Cycles
Hydrologic
Water in the form of ice, liquid water, and water vapor cycles
Operates local, regional, and global levels
Atmospheric
Large portion of a given element (i.e. Nitrogen gas) exists in gaseous form in the atmosphere
Sedimentary
The element does not have a gaseous phase or its gaseous compounds don’t make up a significant portion of its supply
Operates local and regional basis

90. Nutrient Cycling & Ecosystem Sustainability
Self Contained
Energy flow and nutrient cycling seem to imply that ecosystems are virtually self-sustaining, closed systems, at the ecosphere level
As long as they are not disturbed by human activates such as clearing
Forest can have a minimal lost
Nutrients lost form one ecosystem must enter one or more other ecosystems

91. Nutrient Cycling & Ecosystem Sustainability
Nutrient Cycling and Sustainability
Given time natural ecosystems ten to come into a balance, wherein nutrients are recycled with reasonable effici3ency
Humans are accelerating rates of the flow of mater, causing nutrient loss from soils
Scientist warn that this doubling of normal flow of nitrogen in the nitrogen cycle is a serious global problem that contributes to global warming, ozone depletion, air pollution, and loss of biodiversity
Isolated ecosystems are being influenced by human actives