1. Human Development Across the Life Span
Chapter 11
Human Development Across the Life Span

2. “My Heart Leaps Up” William Wordsworth My heart leaps up when I behold
A rainbow in the sky;
So was it when my life began
So is it now I am a man
So be it when I shall grow old
Or let me die!
The Child is father of the Man
And I could wish my days to be
Bound each to each to natural piety.
William Wordsworth

3. Progress Before Birth: Prenatal Development
3 phases
germinal stage = first 2 weeks
conception, implantation, formation of placenta
embryonic stage = 2 weeks – 2 months
formation of vital organs and systems
fetal stage = 2 months – birth
bodily growth continues, movement capability begins, brain cells multiply
age of viability
Prenatal development begins with the germinal stage, lasting from conception to about 2 weeks. During this stage, rapid cell division occurs, and the mass of cells migrates to the uterus and beings to implant into the uterine wall, forming a placenta during the implantation process.
The placenta is a structure that allows oxygen and nutrients to pass into the fetus from the mother’s bloodstream and bodily wastes to pass out to the mother.
The embryonic stage lasts from 2 weeks to 2 months and is the period when most of the vital organs and bodily systems such as the heart, spine, and brain emerge. The embryonic period is a time of great vulnerability; if anything interferes with development during this time period, effects can be devastating.
The fetal period lasts from 2 months to birth. During the early parts of this stage, the muscles and bones begin to form. The body continues to grow and function, with sex organs developing in the 3rd month and brain cells multiplying during the final 3 months.
Somewhere between 22 and 26 weeks, the age of viability is reached…when the baby could survive if born prematurely. At 22 or 23 weeks, chances for survival are slim, but by weeks chances improve to a survival rate of about 85%.

5. Environmental Factors and Prenatal Development
periods of vulnerability in prenatal period (pg 435)
Maternal nutrition
Malnutrition linked to increased risk of birth complications, neurological problems, and psychopathology
Maternal drug use
Tobacco, alcohol, prescription, and recreational drugs
Fetal alcohol syndrome
Maternal illness
Rubella, syphilis, mumps, genital herpes, AIDS, severe influenza
Prenatal health care
Prevention through guidance
Infant mortality by countries – next slide
Preventive care for children
A developing baby and its mother are linked through the placenta, and a mother’s behaviors can affect the baby dramatically.
Severe maternal malnutrition is linked to increased risk of birth complications and neurological problems in the newborn. Moderate maternal malnutrition has been shown to have negative effects for many years after birth. Research links maternal malnutrition to vulnerability, schizophrenia, and other psychiatric disorders in adolescence and early adulthood.
Maternal drug use can significantly impact a developing baby, even if the drugs are legal, like alcohol and cigarettes. Many drugs, both prescription and recreational, are linked to birth defects. Problems can even be caused by some over the counter drugs.
Fetal alcohol syndrome, one of the leading causes of mental retardation, is a collection of congenital (inborn) problems associated with excessive alcohol use during pregnancy. Problems include microcephaly, heart defects, irritability, hyperactivity, and delayed mental and motor development. FAS is also related to increased incidence of depression, suicide, and criminal behavior in adulthood. Many children don’t meet the criteria for a diagnosis of FAS but are still impaired due to their mother’s drinking. While degree of impairment has been shown to be related to the amount of alcohol consumed by a pregnant woman, current studies suggest that even normal social drinking can have enduring negative effects on children, including deficits in IQ, reaction time, motor skills, attention span, and math skills, as well as impulsive, antisocial, and delinquent behavior.
Maternal illness can also interfere with prenatal development; the nature of the damage depends, in part, on when the mother contracts the illness (this is graphically depicted on the next slide).
Prenatal health care begins early in pregnancy, with a focus on guidance from health professionals. Prenatal care is associated with higher survival rates and reduced prematurity, but many women, because of poverty and other problems, do not receive prenatal care.

6. Slide 5
Cross-cultural comparisons of infant mortality

7. The Childhood Years: Motor Development
Basic Principles
Cephalocaudal trend – head to foot
Proximodistal trend – center-outward
Maturation – gradual unfolding of genetic blueprint
Developmental norms – next slide
median age – growth charts
95% level
Cultural variations
Motor development refers to the progression of muscular coordination required for physical activities.
A basic number of principles are apparent in motor development. The cephalocaudal trend describes the fact that children tend to gain control over the upper part of their bodies before the lower part.
The proximodistal trend describes the fact that children gain control over their torsos before their extremities.
Motor development depends in part on physical growth, as well as on the process of maturation (the gradual unfolding of one’s genetic blueprint), and the infant’s ongoing exploration of the world.
Developmental norms indicate the median age at which individuals display various behaviors and abilities…useful benchmarks only.
Cultural variations in motor development indicate the importance of experience on the development of motor skills. Nevertheless, the similarities across cultures outweigh the differences, illustrating the importance of maturation.

8. Developmental Motor milestones

9. Easy and Difficult Babies: Differences in Temperament
Longitudinal vs. cross-sectional designs –
Thomas, Chess, and Birch (1970)
3 basic temperamental styles
easy – 40%
slow-to-warm-up – 15%
difficult – 10%
mixed – 35%
stable over time
Kagan & Snidman (1991)
Inhibited vs. uninhibited temperament
inhibited – %
uninhibited – %
stable over time, genetically based
Go home and ask mom and dad about when your temperament you were a baby.
Cross-sectional studies compare groups of participants of differing age at a single point in time, while longitudinal studies observe one group of participants repeatedly over time.
Cross-sectional studies are easier, quicker, and cheaper; longitudinal designs are more sensitive to developmental influences, however.
Thomas, Chess, and Birch, 1970, were the first to begin a longitudinal study of temperament, an individual’s characteristic mood, activity level, and emotional reactivity.
They found that temperamental individuality is established by about 2-3 months of age, and they identified 3 temperamental styles…easy babies were happy, regular in sleep and eating, adaptable, and not readily upset…slow-to-warm-up children were less cheery, less regular in sleep and eating, and slow adapting to change, with moderate reactivity…difficult children were glum, erratic in sleep and eating, resistant to change, and relatively irritable. Some children exhibited mixtures of all three styles.
Following these children over time indicated that difficult children developed more emotional problems than other children, and temperament was generally stable over time.
While Thomas and colleagues used parent reports, Jerome Kagan and colleagues relied on direct observations. They characterize infants along the inhibited-uninhibited dimension, with inhibited children exhibiting shyness, timidity, and wariness of the unfamiliar, and uninhibited children exhibiting less restraint with regard to the unfamiliar and little trepidation. Evidence suggests that these characteristics are stable over time and may have a genetic base. Current research shows that children who exhibit an inhibited temperament in their second year of life are more likely to develop problems with anxiety during adolescence.

11. Early Emotional Development: Attachment
Separation anxiety
Ainsworth (1979)
The strange situation and patterns of attachment
Secure
Anxious-ambivalent
Avoidant
Next slide, cross-cultural comparison
Effects on mating strategy –
Developing secure attachment
Bonding at birth – contact comfort – Harlow –Daycare
Cultural factors
Evolutionary perspectives on attachment
Attachment refers to the close, emotional bonds of affection that develop between infants and their caregivers.
Separation anxiety is emotional distress seen in many infants when they are separated from people with whom they have formed an attachment.
Ainsworth, in the 1970’s, developed a research paradigm to study attachment using separation anxiety as a measure.
She found that most infants have a secure attachment, playing and exploring comfortably when mom is present, becoming visibly upset when she leaves, and calming quickly upon her return.
Some babies, however, show anxiety even when mom is near and protest excessively when she leaves, but are not particularly comforted when she returns…Ainsworth labeled this pattern anxious-ambivalent attachment. Finally, some babies sought little contact with their mothers and were not distressed when she left, a pattern Ainsworth labeled avoidant attachment.
Evidence suggests that securely attached children tend to become resilient, competent toddlers, with high self esteem. In preschool, they show more persistence, curiosity, self-reliance, and leadership…they also get along better with peers. In middle childhood, they display better social skills and have richer friendship networks. Research also suggests that early attachment patterns set the tone for adult romantic relationships.
Factors affecting the development of attachment appear to be related to the quality of interactions between parent and child over time. Bonding during the first few hours after birth does not appear to be crucial to secure attachment. While much concern has focused on the effects of day care on secure attachment, recent research by the NICHD indicates that day care is not harmful to children’s attachment relationships, and there is evidence that there may be beneficial effects of day care on social development in children from deprived backgrounds.
While cross-cultural research shows that attachment is a universal feature of human development, cultural variations in childrearing practices can impact the patterns of attachment seen in a society. Germans, for example, intentionally try to encourage independence, producing more what Ainsworth would call avoidant attachments. Western researchers have demonstrated an ethnocentric slant to their investigations - what represents a secure parent-child attachment may vary culturally.
John Bowlby, who originated the concept of attachment in the late 60s, assumed attachment to be a function of natural selection, with infants programmed to emit behaviors that trigger affectionate, protective responses in adults. Jay Belsky (1999) asserts that children have been programmed by evolution to respond to sensitive or insensitive care with different attachment patterns.

12. Attachment:
Secure attachment is indicated when an infant explores the situation freely in the presence of the mother, but displays distress when the mother leaves, and responds enthusiastically when the mother returns
Caregivers who are sensitive and responsive to an infant’s needs are more likely to develop a secure attachment with the infant
Insecure-avoidant attachment is indicated by exploration, but minimal interest in the mother, the infant showing little distress when the mother leaves, and avoiding her when she returns
Insecure-ambivalent attachment is indicated by the infant seeking closeness to the mother and not exploring the situation, high level of distress when the mother leaves, and ambivalent behavior when she returns by alternately clinging to and pushing away from her
Insecure-disorganized (disoriented) attachment is marked by the infant’s confusion when the mother leaves and when she returns
The infant acts disoriented, seems overwhelmed by the situation, and does not demonstrate a consistent way of coping with it

13. in attachment patterns
Cultural variations
in attachment patterns
Attachment
and mating strategy, from childhood to puberty
Figure 11.8: Cultural variations in attachment patterns.
This graph shows the distribution of the three original attachment patterns found in specific studies in Germany, Japan, and the United States. As you can see, secure attachment is the most common pattern in all three societies, as it is around the world. However, there are some modest cultural differences in the prevalence of each pattern of attachment, which are probably attributable to cultural variations in childrearing practices. (Data from van IJzendoorn & Kroonenberg, 1988)

15. Parenting Styles Authoritarian
Parents are demanding, expect unquestioned obedience, are not responsive to their children’s desires, and communicate poorly with their children
Authoritative
Parents are demanding but set rational limits for their children and communicate well with their children
Permissive
Parents make few demands and are overly responsive to their child’s desires, letting their children do pretty much as they please
Uninvolved
Parents minimize both the time they spend with the children and their emotional involvement with them, doing little more than providing for basic needs

16. Stage Theories of Development: Personality
Stage theories, three components
progress through stages in order
progress through stages related to age
major discontinuities in development - slide
Erik Erikson (1963) – slide
Eight stages spanning the lifespan
Psychosocial crises determining balance between opposing polarities in personality
Erik Erikson, in the 1960s, proposed a stage theory of personality development based on stages. Many theories of development describe development in terms of stages, or developmental periods during which characteristic patterns of behavior are exhibited and certain capacities become established.
Stage theories assume that individuals must progress through specified stages in a particular order because each stage builds on the previous one. They also assume that progress through the stages is strongly related to age, and that development is marked by major discontinuities that bring about dramatic changes in behavior.
Erikson theorized that there are eight stages, spanning the lifespan, in personality development. He held that there is a specific psychosocial crisis during each stage, the outcome of which determines the balance between opposing polarities in personality.
The eight stages in his theory are depicted on the next slide.

19. Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages1
Trust vs. Mistrust
(birth to 1 year)
Infants learn that they can or cannot trust others to take care of their basic needs 2
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
(1 to 2 years)
Children learn to be self-sufficient in many activities such as toilet training, walking, and exploring; if restrained too much they learn to doubt their abilities and feel shame 3
Initiative vs. Guilt
(3 to 5 years)
Children learn to assume more responsibility by taking the initiative but will feel guilty if they overstep limits set by parents 4
Industry vs. Inferiority
(5 years to puberty)
Children learn to be competent by mastering new intellectual, social, and physical skills or feel inferior if they fail to develop these skills

20. 5 6 7 8 Identity vs. Role Confusion (adolescence)
Adolescents develop a sense of identity by experimenting with different roles; no role experimentation may result in role confusion 6
Intimacy vs. Isolation
(young adulthood)
Young adults form intimate relationships with others or become isolated because of failure to do so 7
Generativity vs. Stagnation
(middle adulthood)
Middle-aged adults feel they are helping the next generation though their work and child rearing, or they stagnate because they feel that they are not helping 8
Integrity vs. Despair
(late adulthood)
Older adults assess their lives and develop sense of integrity if they find lives have been meaningful; develop sense of despair if not meaningful

21. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

22. Sensorimotor Stage
Infant learns about the world through their sensory and motor interactions (including reflexes)
Lack object permanence, the knowledge than an object exists independent of perceptual contact
Symbolic representation of objects and events starts to develop during the latter part of the sensorimotor stage (e.g., use of telegraphic speech)

23. Preoperational Stage
The child’s thinking becomes more symbolic and language-based, but remains egocentric and lacks the mental operations that allow logical thinking
Egocentrism is the inability to distinguish one’s own perceptions, thoughts, and feelings from those of others
Cannot perceive the world from another person’s perspective
The child, however, can pretend, imagine, and engage in make-believe play

24. Preoperational Stage
Conservation is the knowledge that the quantitative properties of an object (such as mass, volume, and number) remain the same despite changes in appearance
Some grasp of conservation marks the end of the preoperational stage and the beginning of the concrete-operational stage
The liquid/beakers problem is a common test of conservation ability

26. Preoperational Stage
A major reason why a preoperational child does not understand conservation is that the child lacks an understanding of reversibility, the knowledge that reversing a transformation brings about the conditions that existed before the transformation
Child’s thinking also reflects centration, the tendency to focus on only one aspect of a problem at a time

27. Concrete Operational Stage
Children gain a fuller understanding of conservation and other mental operations that allow them to think logically, but only about concrete events
Conservation for liquids, numbers, and matter acquired early, but conservation of length acquired later in the stage
Develops transitivity (e.g., if A > B, and B > C, then A > C)
Develops seriation, the ability to order stimuli along a quantitative dimension (e.g., a set of pencils by their length)
The reasoning of concrete operational children is tied to immediate reality (i.e., what is in front of them and tangible) and not with the hypothetical world of possibility

28. Formal Operational Stage
The child gains the capacity for hypothetical-deductive thought
Can engage in hypothetical thought and in systematic deduction and testing of hypotheses

29. Formal Operational Stage
In one scientific thinking task, the child is shown several flasks of what appear to be the same clear liquid and is told one combination of two of these liquids would produce a clear liquid
The task is to determine which combination would produce the blue liquid
The concrete operational child just starts mixing different clear liquids together haphazardly
The formal operational child develops a systematic plan for deducing what the correct combination must be by determining all of the possible combinations and then systematically testing each one

30. Formal Operational Stage
The formal operational child can evaluate the logic of verbal statements without referring to concrete situations
For example, the formal operational child would judge the statement “If mice are bigger than horses, and horses are bigger than cats, then mice are bigger than cats” to be true, even though in “real life” mice are not bigger than cats

31. Evaluation of Piaget’s Theory
Recent research has shown that rudiments of many of Piaget’s key concepts (e.g., object permanence) may begin to appear at earlier stages than Piaget proposed
For example, research that involved tracking infants’ eye movements has found that infants as young as 3 months continue to stare at the place where the object disappeared from sight, indicating some degree of object permanence

32. Evaluation of Piaget’s Theory
1. Not all people reach formal operational thought
2. The theory may be biased in favor of Western culture
3. There is no real theory of what occurs after the onset of adolescence
4. Despite refinements, recent research has indeed shown that cognitive development seems to proceed in the general sequence of stages that Piaget proposed

33. Other Cognitive Abilities
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
Thought and Language (1934)
Importance of social interactions in cognitive development
Zone of proximal development (ZPD) – difference in accomplishing alone and with help from others
Inhibition – disinhibition – innate?
Memory abilities – active maintenance rehearsal 9-10 years
Memory capacities - metacognition
Lawrence Kohlberg devised a stage theory of moral development based on subjects’ responses to presented moral dilemmas. Kohlberg was interested in a person’s reasoning, not necessarily their answer.
He theorized that people progress through a series of three levels of moral development, each of which can be broken into 2 sublevels. Each stage represents a different way of thinking about right and wrong.
These stages, and the characteristic reasoning patterns associated with each, are presented on the next slide.

34. The Development of Moral Reasoning
Kohlberg (1976)
Reasoning as opposed to behavior
Moral dilemmas
Measured nature and progression of moral reasoning
3 levels, each with 2 sublevels – slide
Preconventional – punishment S1 – naïve reward S2
Conventional - good boy/good girl S3 – authority S4
Postconventional - social contract S5 – individual principles and conscience S6
Longitudinal studies – (slide) , research issues (use of males), reasoning versus behavior
Greene’s et al. studies of moral judgments and brain functioning – fMRI studies using 60 moral dilemmas
Lawrence Kohlberg devised a stage theory of moral development based on subjects’ responses to presented moral dilemmas. Kohlberg was interested in a person’s reasoning, not necessarily their answer.
He theorized that people progress through a series of three levels of moral development, each of which can be broken into 2 sublevels. Each stage represents a different way of thinking about right and wrong.
These stages, and the characteristic reasoning patterns associated with each, are presented on the next slide.

35. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Reasoning
Built on an earlier theory of moral reasoning proposed by Piaget, using a series of stories that involved moral dilemmas to assess a person’s level of moral reasoning
Discerned three levels of moral reasoning based on responses to the stories and the reasoning behind the responses given

36. Kohlberg’s Levels of Moral Reasoning
1. At the preconventional level of moral reasoning, the emphasis is on avoiding punishment and looking out for your own welfare and needs
Moral reasoning is self-oriented
2. At the conventional level of moral reasoning, moral reasoning is based on social rules and laws
Social approval and being a dutiful citizen are important
3. At the highest level, the postconventional level of moral reasoning, moral reasoning is based on self-chosen ethical principles
Human rights taking precedent over laws; the avoidance of self-condemnation for violating such principles

37. Kohlberg’s Levels of Moral Reasoning
Preconventional Morality
Stage 1
Punishment orientation
Compliance with rules to avoid punishment
Stage 2
Reward orientation
Compliance with rules to obtain rewards and satisfy own needs
Level 2
Conventional Morality
Stage 3
Good-girl/ good-boy orientation
Engages in behavior to get approval of others
Stage 4
Law and order orientation
Behavior is guided by duty to uphold laws and rules for their own sake

38. Level 3
Postconventional Morality
Stage 5
Social contract orientation
Obeys rules because they are necessary for social order but understands rules are relative
Stage 6
Universal ethical principles orientation
Concerned about self-condemnation for violating universal ethical principles based on human rights
Kohlberg proposed that we all start at the preconventional level as children and as we develop, especially cognitively, we move up the ladder of moral reasoning
The sequence is uniform; however, not everyone reaches the postconventional level

39. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Reasoning
Shortcomings of Kohlberg’s theory
Studied moral reasoning and not moral behavior
May not have adequately represented the morality of women
The higher stages may be biased toward Western cultures

40. Adolescence: Puberty and the Growth Spurt
Pubescence – growth spurts
10 – 12 females – 14 males
Puberty
Secondary sex characteristics
Primary sex characteristics
Menarche / Spermarche
Sperm production
Tanner stages
Maturation: early vs. late – Belsky’s study
Sex differences in effects of early maturation
Brain Development in adolescence – slide
Risk taking – slide
Rates of suicide
Pubescence is the term used to describe the two-year span preceding puberty during which the changes leading to physical and sexual maturity take place.
During this period, children grow taller and heavier and develop secondary sex characteristics, physical features that distinguish one sex from the other but that are not essential for reproduction.
Puberty is the stage during which sexual functions reach maturity, marking the beginning of adolescence. It is during puberty that the primary sex characteristics, the structures necessary for reproduction, develop fully.
In females, the onset of puberty is signaled by menarche – the fist occurrence of menstruation. In males, it is signaled by sperm production.
Puberty is occurring at younger ages, compared to previous generations; explanations for this trend include improvements in nutrition and medical care. Some theorists (Belsky) also hypothesize that the quality of a person’s early family relationships may influence earlier onset of puberty.
The timing of puberty varies individually (10-15 for girls is typical, for boys). Studies of early maturers vs. late maturers indicate that there are sex differences in effects of early vs. late maturation, with early maturing girls and late maturing boys having greater risk for psychological problems and social difficulties.

41. Prefrontal Cortex and adolescence development

42. Peer influence on risk taking
New - Kuhn (2006) notes that media pundits have gotten carried away, blaming the immaturity of the adolescent prefrontal cortex for “just about everything about teens that adults have found perplexing” (p. 59). Other factors also contribute to risky behavior during adolescence. One of these factors is susceptibility to peer influence (Steinberg, 2007). Adolescents spend a great deal of time with their peers. One elegant laboratory study found that the presence of peers more than doubled the number of risks taken by teenagers in a video game involving
in-the-moment decisions about crash risks (Gardner & Steinberg, 2005). In contrast, older adults’ risk taking was not elevated by the presence of peers
Peer influence on risk taking

43. The Search for Identity
Problems – suicide rates and brain development
Erik Erikson (1968)
Key challenge - forming a sense of identity
James Marcia (1988) – next slide
4 identity statuses
Foreclosure
Moratorium
Identity Diffusion
Identity Achievement
According to Erikson, the key challenge of adolescence is to form a clear sense of identity.
James Marcia asserts that the presence or absence of crisis and commitment during the identity formation stage can combine in various ways to produce four different identity statuses.
Foreclosure is a premature commitment to a role prescribed by one’s parents.
A moratorium involves delaying commitment and engaging in experimentation with different roles.
Identity diffusion is a state of lack of direction and apathy, where a person does not confront the challenge and commit to an ideology.
Identity achievement involves arriving at a sense of self and direction after some consideration of alternative possibilities.
Age trends in identity statuses exist, depicted in figure

44. Marcia’s four identity statuses

45. Emerging Adulthood as a New Developmental Stage
Search for identity extends into adulthood
Ages 18 – 25 have become a distinct transitional stage of life
Characterized by:
subjective feeling of transition
age of possibilities
self-focused
period of identity formation

46. The Expanse of Adulthood
Personality development – midlife crisis? -
Social development – family life cycle, marriage, parenthood, empty nest –
Career development – patterns, work and in the home –
Physical changes – biological aging process
Cognitive changes – mental abilities - memory, response time -
Personality is marked by both stability and change, as adulthood is a period of many transitions. Adults who move successfully through Erikson’s stages develop intimacy, generativity, and integrity.
Many landmarks in adult development involve transitions in family relationships: marriage, parenthood, parent adolescent relations, the empty nest syndrome.
Studies of marriage and marital satisfaction indicate that when spouses have differing role expectations, adjustment to marriage is more difficult. Research also shows highest rates of marital satisfaction at the beginning and end of the family cycle.
Research shows that adjustment to parenthood proceeds more smoothly if unrealistic expectations are not held. Research on later parent/child relations suggests that parent-adolescent relations and the adjustment difficulties that parents may have when children leave home (empty nest syndrome) may not be as stressful as once believed.
Vocational development tends to proceed through stages of exploration of careers, establishment of a career, maintenance, and decline.
Age related physical changes include changes in appearance, neuron loss, sensory loss, and hormonal changes. Research indicates that menopause is not as problematic as once thought.
Cognitive functioning research indicates that general mental ability remains fairly stable, with small declines in IQ after age 60. Fluid intelligence is more likely to decline with age, while crystallized intelligence remains stable or increases.
Mental speed declines in late adulthood, and memory losses have been reported in many studies. These are moderate and variable.

47. Median age at first marriage in United States

48. Sternberg’s triangular theory of love.48

49. What are your LOVE indicators?
Each person will identify one indicator of LOVE and an example of how it could be measured. (Did you come upon this from “firsthand” experience or second party?)
Then make a poster with the group identifiers.

51. Age and the stability of primary mental abilities
New - Many theorists distinguish between fluid intelligence, which involves basic reasoning ability, memory capacity, and speed of information processing, versus crystallized intelligence, which involves the ability to apply acquired knowledge and skills in problem solving. Research suggests that fluid intelligence is much more likely to decline with age, whereas crystallized intelligence tends to remain stable (Baltes, Staudinger, & Lindenberger, 1999; Horn & Hofer, 1992; Li et al., 2004)
Age and the stability of primary mental abilities

52. Gender Differences and issues
Stereotypes –
Cognitive –
Social/personality
Biological origins – brain hemisphere differences – Figure
Hormone influences – estrogens and androgens
Environment influences - socialization
Gender role – gender versus sex
Father’s (dad’s) role in children’s well-being
Personality is marked by both stability and change, as adulthood is a period of many transitions. Adults who move successfully through Erikson’s stages develop intimacy, generativity, and integrity.
Many landmarks in adult development involve transitions in family relationships: marriage, parenthood, parent adolescent relations, the empty nest syndrome.
Studies of marriage and marital satisfaction indicate that when spouses have differing role expectations, adjustment to marriage is more difficult. Research also shows highest rates of marital satisfaction at the beginning and end of the family cycle.
Research shows that adjustment to parenthood proceeds more smoothly if unrealistic expectations are not held. Research on later parent/child relations suggests that parent-adolescent relations and the adjustment difficulties that parents may have when children leave home (empty nest syndrome) may not be as stressful as once believed.
Vocational development tends to proceed through stages of exploration of careers, establishment of a career, maintenance, and decline.
Age related physical changes include changes in appearance, neuron loss, sensory loss, and hormonal changes. Research indicates that menopause is not as problematic as once thought.
Cognitive functioning research indicates that general mental ability remains fairly stable, with small declines in IQ after age 60. Fluid intelligence is more likely to decline with age, while crystallized intelligence remains stable or increases.
Mental speed declines in late adulthood, and memory losses have been reported in many studies. These are moderate and variable.

53. Death & Dying (Kubler-Ross)
Denial – "I feel fine."; "This can't be happening, not to me." Denial is usually only a temporary defense for the individual. This feeling is generally replaced with heightened awareness of positions and individuals that will be left behind after death.
Anger – "Why me? It's not fair!"; "How can this happen to me?"; "Who is to blame?" Once in the second stage, the individual recognizes that denial cannot continue. Because of anger, the person is very difficult to care for due to misplaced feelings of rage and envy. Any individual that symbolizes life or energy is subject to projected resentment and jealousy.
Bargaining – "Just let me live to see my children graduate."; "I'll do anything for a few more years."; "I will give my life savings if..." The third stage involves the hope that the individual can somehow postpone or delay death. Usually, the negotiation for an extended life is made with a higher power in exchange for a reformed lifestyle. Psychologically, the individual is saying, "I understand I will die, but if I could just have more time..."
Depression – "I'm so sad, why bother with anything?"; "I'm going to die... What's the point?"; "I miss my loved one, why go on?" During the fourth stage, the dying person begins to understand the certainty of death. Because of this, the individual may become silent, refuse visitors and spend much of the time crying and grieving. This process allows the dying person to disconnect oneself from things of love and affection. It is not recommended to attempt to cheer up an individual who is in this stage. It is an important time for grieving that must be processed.
Acceptance – "It's going to be okay."; "I can't fight it, I may as well prepare for it.”
In this last stage, the individual begins to come to terms with his mortality or that of his loved one.

54. Let’s write about death!
Define “death”.
Do you believe in some kind of “afterlife”?
Why or why not? If so, what’s it like?
Why are funerals important?
If you could know the exact time and cause of your death would you want to know? Why or why not?
Write about your funeral:
What would you want it to include?
Who are 3 people that you would want to speak and what would you hope they say?