1. Applied Ecology

2. Contents Diversity Diversity Effects of Pollution on Diversity Effects of Pollution on Diversity Structural, Physiological and Behavioural Adaptations of Organisms for Survival in a Given Niche Structural, Physiological and Behavioural Adaptations of Organisms for Survival in a Given Niche Agricultural Ecosystems Agricultural Ecosystems Harvesting from a Natural Ecosystem Harvesting from a Natural Ecosystem Conservation Conservation

3. Depends on: Depends on: - number of species and abundance of each species in an ecosystem Growth of population depends on: Growth of population depends on: - Abiotic factors - Biotic factors Index of Diversity: d = N(N-1)/Σn(n-1) d: index of diversity N: total number of organisms of all species in area n: total number of organisms of each species in area Diversity

4. Impact of Humans Humans pose a huge threat to lives of animals, plants and their environment Humans pose a huge threat to lives of animals, plants and their environment Our impact is so great due to: Our impact is so great due to: - technologies that change the world so quickly - population increase - consumption of natural resources, and waste

5. Human Population Growth Humans can adapt to survive in almost all habitats and climates. The human population is increasing rapidly and is threatening the environment Humans can adapt to survive in almost all habitats and climates. The human population is increasing rapidly and is threatening the environment The population will eventually be limited by these factors: The population will eventually be limited by these factors: - food and water supply - disease and pollution - over-crowding - sudden changes in climate

6. Atmospheric: Caused by combustion, exhaust fumes, livestock, waste dumps Atmospheric: Caused by combustion, exhaust fumes, livestock, waste dumps Effects: Effects: - smoke, which damages air quality - carbon dioxide and Methane, which cause climate change - sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide, which mix with rainwater to form acid rain - carbon monoxide, which is poisonous to humans and animals Water: Caused by deposition of substances into seas, lakes, rivers Water: Caused by deposition of substances into seas, lakes, rivers Effects: Effects: - sewage and oil, which destroy habitats and kill animals - fertilisers and pesticides, which damage ecosystems Pollution

7. Ecological Niche Describes how organisms in an ecosystem interact Describes how organisms in an ecosystem interact What it does that affects or contributes to its surroundings What it does that affects or contributes to its surroundings Includes: habitat, relationships and nutrition Includes: habitat, relationships and nutrition Examples of Relationships (Interactions) Between Species InteractionExamples: Herbivory A primary consumer feeds on a producer A fruit bat eats a papaya Predation A consumer feeds on another consumer The cougar is a predator of black-tailed deer Mutualism 2 species live together with each providing benefit to the other via the relationship Aphids provide honey dew for ants, while the ants move the aphids to new leaves and protect them from predators Parasitism A parasite lives on or within a host and obtains food from it. The parasite benefits, the host is always harmed Mistletoe is a plant parasite on Oregon White Oak, obtaining sap from the oak Competition 2 species compete for the same resource if there is not enough to support both A scrub jay and a grey squirrel compete for nuts and seeds within the oak forest

8. Agroecosystems Definition: formed by interactions between biotic (plants, microbes etc.) and abiotic (temp. humidity etc.) factors in a defined area, an agroecostystem influences the distribution and population of living organisms Definition: formed by interactions between biotic (plants, microbes etc.) and abiotic (temp. humidity etc.) factors in a defined area, an agroecostystem influences the distribution and population of living organisms Tends to minimise human impact Tends to minimise human impact Differs from natural ecosystems: Differs from natural ecosystems: - maintenance at an early successional state - monoculture - crops planted in rows - simplification of biodiversity - intensive tillage - use of GM organisms and artificially selected crops

9. Agroecosystems Refers to the study of an ecological phenomenon in the crop field e.g. relations between predators and prey Refers to the study of an ecological phenomenon in the crop field e.g. relations between predators and prey Needs energy input to maintain a balance Needs energy input to maintain a balance e.g. use of pesticides disturbs balance by killing organisms Maintenance keeps pest populations at manageable levels: Maintenance keeps pest populations at manageable levels: - ecosystems are ever changing systems - ecosystems follow food webs - All elements of an agroecosystem are closely linked. Disturbance to one has effects on others

10. Harvesting from a Natural Ecosystem Humans have a huge impact on the planet. This includes intensive farming, selective breeding and pesticides/fertilisers Humans have a huge impact on the planet. This includes intensive farming, selective breeding and pesticides/fertilisers Impacts of Monoculture: Impacts of Monoculture: 1. Genetic diversity is reduced, crops susceptible to disease 2. Fertilisers pollute groundwater 3. Pesticides pollute groundwater 4. Species diversity is reduced 5. Countryside less attractive Crop rotation: breaks pests’ life cycles, improves soil texture and can increase soil nitrogen Crop rotation: breaks pests’ life cycles, improves soil texture and can increase soil nitrogen

11. Harvesting from a Natural Ecosystem Hedgerows have been diminishing due to human need for barren land Hedgerows have been diminishing due to human need for barren land Benefits of hedgerows to ecosystem: Benefits of hedgerows to ecosystem: 1. Provide habitats 2. Animals use them to move safely between woodlands 3. Shelter predators of pests 4. Windbreaks, shelter, reduce soil erosion 5. Provide habitats for pollinating insects Importance is now being recognised and farmers are receiving grants to plant hedgerows Importance is now being recognised and farmers are receiving grants to plant hedgerows

12. Harvesting from a Natural Ecosystem Inorganic fertilisers are most common but affect the environment Inorganic fertilisers are most common but affect the environment Benefits of organic fertilisers to ecosystem: Benefits of organic fertilisers to ecosystem: 1. Compounds decompose slowly and prevent leaching 2. They are cheap 3. Can be disposed of on fields and not only in landfill sites 4. Improves soil structure and improves drainage and aeration But… bulky and less concentrated than inorganic ones, highly odorous and can contain weed seeds etc. But… bulky and less concentrated than inorganic ones, highly odorous and can contain weed seeds etc.

13. Intensive farming can damage the environment. Intensive farming can damage the environment.e.g. Harvesting from a Natural Ecosystem

14. Pesticides can harm larger organisms. Pesticides can harm larger organisms.e.g. Harvesting from a Natural Ecosystem

15. Fishing: Fishing: Unsustainability: the using up of resources faster than they are produced so that they will not continue in the future e.g. North Sea Cod are over-fished so are reproducing slower than are being caught. Effect  population is heavily declining Forestry: Forestry: Humans burn wood or clear land for farming  deforestation: 1) destroys habitats 2) causes soil erosion  barren land and flooding 3) causes pollution from combustion 4) increased levels of carbon dioxide as loss of photosynthesis Harvesting from a Natural Ecosystem

16. Humans recognise the necessity to maintain a balance between the needs of ourselves and other species Humans recognise the necessity to maintain a balance between the needs of ourselves and other species Conservation of forests: encouragement of sustainable use of forests Conservation of forests: encouragement of sustainable use of forests Governments must be persuaded that more money can often be made by exploiting forests on a sustainable basis than by destroying them Governments must be persuaded that more money can often be made by exploiting forests on a sustainable basis than by destroying them Conservation

17. Summary Diversity Diversity Effects of Pollution on Diversity Effects of Pollution on Diversity Structural, Physiological and Behavioural Adaptations of Organisms for Survival in a Given Niche Structural, Physiological and Behavioural Adaptations of Organisms for Survival in a Given Niche Agricultural Ecosystems Agricultural Ecosystems Harvesting from a Natural Ecosystem Harvesting from a Natural Ecosystem Conservation Conservation