1. O VERVIEW OF THE M ORNING Overview of Human Learning From Epistemology to Psychology Behavioral Theories of Learning Classical Conditioning: Pavlov’s Dogs Operant Conditioning: Thorndike’s Cats and Skinner’s Rats Theory to Practice Behaviorism in the Classroom Components and Implications Social Learning and Social Cognitive Theory Read Module 10

2. W HAT IS L EARNING ? “Any relatively permanent change in an organism that results from experience” (Me, Now, Here). “Learning is an enduring change in behavior, or in the capacity to behave in a given fashion, which results from practice or other forms of experience” (Schunk, 2004, p. 2). What are the three criteria common in these definitions? “Learning occurs when experience causes a relatively permanent change in an individual’s knowledge or behavior” (Woolfolk, 2007, p. 206).

3. T WO D OMINANT C AMPS OF C ONTEMPORARY L EARNING T HEORIES Behaviorism thoughtless conditioning of S-R/R-S associations observable behavior strengthen and weaken response associations animals to find general laws of learning Cognitvism thoughtful construction of knowledge internal mental structures provide information and motivation human development and learning in many contexts Learning involves the… Causing changes in … Reinforcers and punishers… Research focuses on…

4. G UIDING Q UESTIONS What are the similarities and differences between classical and instrumental conditioning? In what ways have you been conditioned? What are some of ways that students get conditioned at school?

5. B EHAVIORAL V IEWS OF L EARNING Classical (Respondent) Conditioning Ivan Pavlov and His Dogs Stimulus  Response (S-R) Instrumental (Operant) Conditioning E.L. Thorndike and His Cats B.F. Skinner and His Rats Response  Stimulus (R-S) or really S-R-S 0r ABC: Antecedents  Behavior  Consequences

6. L EARNING BY C LASSICAL C ONDITIONING : P AVLOV ’ S D OG Phases of Conditioning 1. Before Conditioning Before Conditioning UCS (food) -> UCR (salivation) 2. During Conditioning (Acquisition) During Conditioning CS (bell) paired with UCS (food) -> UCR (salivation) 3. After Conditioning After Conditioning CS (bell) -> CR (salivation)

7. http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/behsys/classcnd.html

10. C LASSICAL C ONDITIONING IN “T HE O FFICE ”

11. T2P: T HINK -P AIR -S HARE Think of time when you feel you were classical conditioned (or when you think you witnessed CC in action). Write a short paragraph describing this event. Pair up with a person next to you. Share your experiences with each other and then: * Create a diagram to represent the experience that you think best exemplifies CC (you may want to use the labels NS, UCS, CS, UCR, CR). * Discuss the educational implications (If this is positive example, how might you promote it? If negative, how might you prevent it? * Be prepared to share your model with your peers

12. O THER P AVLOVIAN P HENOMENA 1. Generalization (Transfer) 2. Discrimination (Shaping) 3. Extinction 4. Spontaneous Recovery 5. Conditioned Emotional Responses

13. I MPLICATIONS FOR T EACHING 1. Avoid conditioning negative responses: e.g., don’t dwell on poor performances, tell student you expect better work next time. 2. Link learning to positive emotions: e.g., pair positive feelings with learning, esp. areas where students are having difficulty. 3. Teach students to generalize and discriminate appropriately: e.g., make it clear that poor performance on one project or test does make the student an overall poor performer.

14. B EHAVIORAL V IEWS OF L EARNING Classical (Respondent) Conditioning Ivan Pavlov and His Dogs Stimulus -> Response (S-R) Instrumental (Operant) Conditioning E.L. Thorndike and His Cats B.F. Skinner and His Rats Response -> Stimulus (R-S) or really S-R-S 0r ABC: Antecedents -> Behavior -> Consequences

15. O PERANT C ONDITIONING : S KINNERIAN S TYLE

16. L EARNING BY O PERANT C ONDITIONING : T HRONDIKE ’ S C ATS, S KINNER ’ S R ATS Operants Voluntary, goal-directed behaviors emitted to produce a consequence Thorndike’s Law of Effect Actions that produce desirable effects in a given situation tend to be repeated in that situation, and vice-versa. Skinner’s Three-Term Contingency Model AB C

17. Increase Behavior Decrease Behavior Presentation of Stimulus Positive Reinforcement (“Reward”) Presentation Punishment (“Type I”) Removal/With holding of Stimulus Negative Reinforcement (“Escape”) Removal Punishment (“Type II”) Operant Conditioning: Four Major Methods Outcome of Conditioning http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/behsys/operant.html

18. G IVE AN EXAMPLE OF … Presentation Punishment -Apply negative stimulus to decrease behavior Removal Punishment -Remove positive stimulus to decrease behavior

19. O PERANT C ONDITIONING : S CHEDULES OF R EINFORCEMENT Continuous Reinforce after every response  light switch Fixed-interval Reinforce after a set period of time  quiz every Friday Variable-interval Reinforce after varying lengths of time  pop quiz Fixed-ratio Reinforce after set number of responses  gold stars Variable-ratio Reinforce after varying number of responses  slot machines

20. O PERANT C ONDITIONING : A DDITIONAL C ONCEPTS & M ETHODS Primary vs. Secondary Reinforcers Food, Water, Shelter, etc. vs. Grades, Money, Status, etc. Premack’s Principle (aka Grandma’s Rule) First you do this, then you get that: “You can go out to play after you eat your vegetables.” Skinner’s Schedules of Reinforcement Continuous vs. Intermittent (Interval/Ratio; Fixed/Variable) = V-R Schedule is most effective Shaping/Successive Approximation Method of teaching complex behavior by rewarding behav. that comes closer and closer to desired behav.

21. A B EHAVIORAL S CIENCE A PPROACH TO T EACHING Four Components 1. Focus instruction on observable learner performance. 2. Assure learners can perform all prerequisite skills.prerequisite skills 3. Present instructional material effectively and elicit rapidly paced, correct performance. 4. Use appropriate consequences following performance.

22. T HEORY TO P RACTICE … Think of complex task in your subject area (such as conducting library or internet research for a paper). It’s over half way through the academic year and many of your students still depend on you for step- by-step instructions every time you assign the task. How can you help them to learn or internalize the skills needed?

23. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY (BANDURA, 1977, 1986)

24. B ANDURA ’ S T HEORIES OF L EARNING Social Learning Theory (1977) A Neo-Behavioral View of Learning Behaviorism + Social Factors = Learn by observing others (and from the consequences of their actions) Learning-Performance Distinction = We know more than we show Social Cognitive Theory (1986) Introduced personal factors into the equation Triadic Reciprocality = SLT + Cognitive Factors Bridge between behavioral and cognitive learning theories

25. T RIADIC R ECIPROCALITY http://www.des.emory.edu/mfp/efftalk.html

26. M ODELING (2 MEANINGS ) 1) What the model does -Demonstrate a behavior 2) What the observer does -Mimic a behavior Teaches new behaviors Influences the frequency of previously learned behaviors May encourage previously forbidden behaviors Increases frequency of similar behaviors

27. T YPES OF M ODELS Live Model Someone who is directly observed (e.g. peers, parents, teachers)

28. T YPES OF M ODELS Symbolic Model Does not exist in same environment (e.g. books, television, movies)

29. M ODEL C HARACTERISTICS Relevant: Model is similar to the observer (age, gender, ethnicity, SES) and is performing an interesting behavior Competence: Model should be viewed as competent by the observer Status: Model should have high status in the observer’s environment Gender Appropriateness: Someone of same sex performing gender appropriate behaviors

30. B ANDURA ’ S B OBO DOLL

32. L EARNING BY O BSERVING : F OUR K EY P ROCESSES OF THE O BSERVER Attention = Must attend to the behavior being observed Retention = Must remember the behavior Reproduction = Must be able to produce the observed behavior Motivation = Must be motivated to perform the behavior

33. T RIADIC R ECIPROCALITY http://www.des.emory.edu/mfp/efftalk.html

34. E NVIRONMENTAL F ACTORS : Response facilitation (vicarious reinforcement) Response inhibition (vicarious punishment) Response disinhibition

35. P ERSONAL FACTORS : S ELF E FFICACY Belief about one’s capabilities for success How SE is strengthened: Past performance Modeling Verbal persuasion Physiological state How does SE affect behavior? Choice of activities Goals Effort and persistence/ task perseverance Learning & achievement

36. S ELF -E FFICACY What affects the development of SE? Past successes and failures Messages from others - “Pep talks” Successes and failures of others Successes and failures of one’s “group”

37. L EARNING LIKE A M ACHINE

38. Operant Conditioning Skinnerian Approach The Black Box - Cognitive Processes human mind Stimulus Response

39. Cognition is Opening the Black Box thinking reasoning elaboration memory scripts schemata metacognition

40. Cognition ACQUISITION TRANSFER RETRIEVAL

41. I NFORMATION P ROCESSING T HEORIES : C OMMON F OCUS & A SSUMPTIONS Focus on internal (mental) processes that intervene between S and R (less concerned with objective external conditions). Assumptions 1. Learners actively seek out, process, organize, and even transform information…. 2. Processing occurs in stages and the form of information changes from stage to stage 3. Computer processing is analogous to (or least an apt metaphor for) human information processing

42. Components of Memory Sensory Short-Term Store (SSTS) very short (0.5 seconds) ex: brief snapshot Short-Term M. (STM) / Working M. limited capacity chunking and rehearsal Long-Term M. (LTM) organized assimilated to existing knowledge

43. Working Memory Also referred to as short-term memory Where you hold information while you are “working on it’ Calculations Sounding out/ figuring out new words Making decisions

44. T HE T WO -S TORE M ODEL Working Memory on your mind limited (7+/-2) very brief words, images, ideas, sentences and other symbols Long-Term Memory in your mind practically unlimited relatively permanent productions, propositional networks, schemata, images, episodes It’s what’s… Its capacity is … Its duration is… It consists of…

45. I NFORMATION P ROCESSING M ODEL Environmental Inputs/Stimuli Sensory Registers Working (Short-Term)Memory Perception Long-Term Memory Lost In-Depth Processing Lost? Lost Executive Control Processes Maintenace Rehearsal Organization (chunking, etc) Elaborative Rehearsal Schemata (Assimilation v Accommodation) Prior Knowledge Attention Prior Knowledge; Current Needs

46. C OMPONENTS OF I NFORMATION P ROCESSING : S ENSORY M EMORY Sensory Registers (Vision, Hearing, Touch, Smell, Taste, and ???) Each sense has its own register and each can be engaged simultaneously & independently Perception The process of attaching meaning to the environmental stimuli we receive through our sensory registers Gesalt Theory (top-down processing = using knowledge and expectation) Attention A limited resource and general limitation of the entire human information processing system (ie determines which stimuli receive further processing) Influenced by: size, intensity, personal significance, incongruity & emotion

47. F ACE - TO -F ACE OR V ASE ? F LIPPING F IGURE -G ROUND

48. I NFORMATION P ROCESSING M ODEL Environmental Inputs/Stimuli Sensory Registers Working (Short-Term)Memory Perception Long-Term Memory Lost In-Depth Processing Lost? Lost Executive Control Processes Maintenace Rehearsal Organization (chunking, etc) Elaborative Rehearsal Schemata (Assimilation v Accommodation) Prior Knowledge Attention Prior Knowledge; Current Needs

49. A MODEL OF INFORMATION PROCESSING Chunking Grouping individual bits of information in a meaningful way Maintenance Rehearsal: Using mental and verbal repetition to hold information in short-term memory for immediate use. Elaborative Rehearsal: Encoding new information in long-term memory by consciously relating it to already stored (prior) knowledge.

50. KINDS OF KNOWLEDGE Domain- General Domain- Specific Declarative (knowing that) Procedural (knowing how) Conditional (knowing when)

51. T HE S EVEN S INS OF M EMORY Why do we forget? Or did you forget!?

52. W HY W E F ORGET Decay (memory trace weakens over time) Synapses, like muscles, atrophy when not used Inaccessibility (inadequate retrieval cues) Cue-dependent forgetting Blocking (retroactive and proactive) Brain tries to retrieve information but another memory interferes with it (e.g. tip of tongue phenomenon) Suppression (intentional and subconscious) Repeatedly blocking thoughts of experiences until they can no longer retrieve the memory

53. C OGNITIVE D ISTORTIONS : T HREE A DDITIONAL “S INS ” OF M EMORY Misattribution -- attributing a memory to an incorrect source (e.g., we hear something from a friend, but we think we heard it on the radio.) Suggestibility -- implanted memories arise as a result of leading questions or leading suggestions Bias -- retrospective distortions produced by current knowledge and belief (i.e., when what we know, believe and feel in the present skews our reconstruction of the past). **Memory is not a tape or video recorder; it's a reconstruction that uses bits of information from the past and combines that with what we currently know and believe. Excerpted from The Seven Sins of Memory: How the Mind Forgets and Remembers (2002) by Daniel L. Schacter

54. I MPLICATIONS FOR T EACHING Get students’ attention! Allow time for rehearsal/practice Help students elaborate Arrange memorable learning experiences Use images, pictures, visual representations Organize information Teach conditional knowledge Encourage “learning by doing”

55. T ELL ME MORE … How would you use information processing ideas in your classroom? How would you gain and maintain the attention of your students? Imagine you were asked by a parent to identify what you feel is effective teaching. Using your knowledge of the Information Processing Model of Memory, respond to this parent.

56. https://www.cia.gov/csi/books/19104/figure10.gif

57. L EARNING LIKE A H UMAN

58. C ONSTRUCTIVISM Key Concepts and Questions What is constructivism? What are the major perspectives and common elements? How can teachers create constructivist-based learning environments?

59. C ONSTRUCTIVISM “a vast and wooly area in contemporary psychology, epistemology, and education” (Von Glaserfeld, 1997, p. 204). “the learner’s contribution to meaning and learning through both individual and social activity” (Bruning et al., 1999, p. 215; italics added). How is Knowledge Constructed? 1.By the realities and truths of external world (Info Pro Theory) 2.By internal processes such as assimilation (Piaget) 3.By both internal and external factors (Vygotsky)

60. C ONSTRUCTIVISM : I TS M ANY F ACES Many intellectual roots: philosophy, psychology, educators No single theory: but general consensus that learners play an active role in building (“constructing”) their own knowledge and understanding…. Two major forms or camps: Psychological (Piaget): “First Wave Constructivism” Emphasis on “how individuals build up certain elements of their cognitive and emotional apparatus” (Phillips, 1997, p. 153). Social (Vygotsky): “Second Wave Constructivism” Emphasis on how “social interaction, cultural tools, and activity shape individual development and learning” (Woolfolk, p. 324)

61. C ONSTRUCTIVIST L EARNING E NVIRONMENTS C OMMON E LEMENTS AND G UIDING P RINCIPLES Complex Learning Environment and Authentic Tasks: Ill-structured, real- world problems that are of emerging relevance to students are explored; Multiple solutions are possible and derived at via authentic tasks and activities Social Negotiation and Shared Responsibility: Students’ points of view are heard and valued; Responsibility for problem-solving is distributed. Multiple Representations of Content: The curriculum is adapted to address students’ prior knowledge, presuppositions, and misconceptions; Problems are considered using various analogies, examples, and metaphors. Construction of Conceptual Understanding: Learning is structured around primary concepts (“big ideas”) of the discipline (or subfield) being investigated; Students are aware of their own role in constructing knowledge and making meaning of the world. Student Ownership: Students, with guidance from the teacher, determine what and how they learn as well as the products of their learning.

62. STAR L EGACY L EARNING C YCLE

63. E DUCATIONAL A PPLICATIONS OF C ONSTRUCTIVIST V IEWS OF L EARNING Cognitive Apprenticeships Class Discussions Reciprocal Teaching (RT) Question Clarify Summarize Predict Cooperative Learning/Group Work Peer Tutoring Community of Learners Technology-Based Discussions Instructional Dialogues Problem/Project-Based Learning Simulations