1. Chapter 9: The Voyage Through the Life Span

2. Learning Outcomes
Explain prenatal development and the role that sex hormones play.
Explain the physical, cognitive, moral, social, and emotional development of children.

3. Learning Outcomes
Explain the physical, cognitive, moral, social and emotional development of adolescents.
Explain the features of emerging adulthood.
Explain the physical, cognitive, moral, social, and emotional development of adults.

4. Prenatal Development
LO1 Explain prenatal development and the role that sex hormones play

5. Prenatal Development Germinal Stage Conception through implantation
Zygote divides and becomes implanted in the uterine wall
zygote – a fertilized ovum (egg cell)
germinal stage – the first stage of prenatal development, during which the dividing mass of cells has not become implanted in the uterine wall
amniotic sac – a sac within the uterus that contains the embryo or fetus

6. Prenatal Development Embryonic Stage Implantation until about 8th week
Major organ systems are formed
Growth occurs
Head first
Vital organs to extremities

7. A Human Fetus at Twelve Weeks
Figure 9.1: A Human Fetus at Twelve Weeks – By the end of the first trimester, formation of all the major organ systems is complete. Fingers and toes are fully formed, and the sex of the fetus can be determined visually.

8. Prenatal Development Embryonic Stage
Genetic code (XX or XY) causes sex organs to differentiate
Y sex chromosome – testes form and produce androgens

9. Truth or Fiction?
Your heart started beating when you were only one fifth of an inch long and weighed a fraction of an ounce.
Truth or Fiction? Your heart started beating when you were only one fifth of an inch long and weighed a fraction of an ounce. TRUE During the fourth week, a primitive heart begins to beat and pump blood—in an organism that is one-fifth of an inch long.

10. Truth or Fiction?
Your heart started beating when you were only one fifth of an inch long and weighed a fraction of an ounce.
TRUE!
Truth or Fiction? Your heart started beating when you were only one fifth of an inch long and weighed a fraction of an ounce. TRUE During the fourth week, a primitive heart begins to beat and pump blood—in an organism that is one-fifth of an inch long.

11. Prenatal Development Embryonic Stage
Embryo is suspended in amniotic sac
Nutrients and wastes are exchanged with mother through placenta
Embryo is connected to placenta by umbilical cord
amniotic sac – a sac within the uterus that contains the embryo or fetus
placenta – a membrane that permits the exchange of nutrients and waste products between the mother and her developing child but does not allow the maternal and fetal bloodstreams to mix
umbilical cord – a tube between the mother and her developing child through which nutrients and waste product are conducted

12. Prenatal Development Fetal Stage Beginning of third month until birth
Characterized by maturation and gains in size

13. A Human Fetus at Four Months
Figure 9.1: A Human Fetus at Four Months – At this midway point between conception and birth, the fetus is covered with fine, downy hair, called lanugo.

14. Childhood
LO2 Explain the physical, cognitive, moral, social, and emotional development of children.

15. Physical Development Reflexes Motor Development
Simple, inborn responses elicited by specific stimuli
Rooting and sucking, withdrawal, startle, grasping
Motor Development
Brain maturation and environmental factors
reflex – a simple inborn response to a stimulus
rooting – the turning of an infant’s head toward a touch, such as by the mother’s nipple

16. Motor Development
Figure 9.2 Motor Development

17. Physical Development Perceptual Development
Within days, infant can track moving light
3-month-old can discriminate most colors
2-month-olds prefer human face as visual stimuli
Fixation time – measure of visual preference
Perceive depth about time begin crawling
Visual cliff experiments
fixation time – the amount of time spent looking at a visual stimulus

18. Two-Month-Olds’ Preferences for Visual Stimuli
Figure 9.3 Two-Month-Olds’ Preferences for Visual Stimuli.

19. Physical Development Perceptual Development
Newborns hear normally; prefer mother’s voice
Show no preference for father’s voice
Newborns can discriminate distinct odors

20. Cognitive Development
The way in which children mentally represent and think about the world
Jean Piaget – Cognitive-development theory
Lev Vygotsky – Sociocultural theory
Lawrence Kohlberg – Theory of moral development

21. Piaget’s Cognitive-Development Theory
Schema
“Mental structure” in organizing knowledge
Assimilation
Respond to new stimuli through existing habit
Accommodation
Create new ways of responding to objects
schema – according to Piaget, a hypothetical mental structure that permits the classification and organization of new information
assimilation - according to Piaget, the inclusion of a new event into an existing schema
accommodation – according to Piaget, the modification of schemas so that information inconsistent with existing schemas can be integrated or understood

22. Truth or Fiction?
Prior to 6 months or so of age, “out of sight” is literally “out of mind”
Truth or Fiction? Prior to 6 months or so of age, “out of sight” is literally “out of mind” TRUE For most infants younger than 6 months, objects are not yet represented mentally.

23. Truth or Fiction?
Prior to 6 months or so of age, “out of sight” is literally “out of mind”
TRUE!
Truth or Fiction? Prior to 6 months or so of age, “out of sight” is literally “out of mind” TRUE For most infants younger than 6 months, objects are not yet represented mentally.

24. Stages of Cognitive-Development Theory
Sensorimotor Stage
Coordination of sensory information and motor activity
Object Permanence
Before 6 months of age does not mentally represent objects
sensorimotor stage – the first of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, characterized by coordination of sensory information and motor activity, early exploration of the environment, and lack of language
object permanence – recognition that objects removed from sight still exist, as demonstrated in young children by continued pursuit

25. Object Permanence
Figure 9.4: Object Permanence – To this infant, who is in the early part of the sensorimotor stage, out of sight is truly out of mind. Once a sheet of paper is placed between the infant and the toy animal, the infant loses all interest in it. The toy is apparently not yet mentally represented.

26. Stages of Cognitive-Development Theory
Preoperational Stage
Use words and symbols to represent objects and relationships among them
Egocentrism
Animism
Artificialism
Conservation
Objective Responsibility
preoperational stage – the second of Piaget’s stages, characterized by illogical use of words and symbols, spotty logic, and egocentrism
egocentrism – according to Piaget, the assumption that others view the world as one does oneself
conservation – according to Piaget, recognition that basic properties of substances such as weight and mass remain the same when superficial features change
objective responsibility – according to Piaget, the assignment of blame according to the amount of damage done rather than the motives of the actor
Animism – The belief that inanimate objects move because of will or spirit
Artificialism – The belief that natural objects have been created by human beings

27. Example of Preoperational Thought
Table 9.1: Examples of Preoperational Thought

28. Conservation
Figure 9.5: Conservation – (a) The boy in this illustration agreed that the amount of water in two identical containers is equal. (b) He then watched as water from one container was poured into a tall, thin container. (c) When asked whether the amounts of water in the two containers are now the same, he says no.

29. Stages of Cognitive-Development Theory
Concrete Operational Stage
Beginning of capacity for adult logic
Decentration
Reversibility
Subjective Moral Judgment
concrete operational stage – Piaget’s third stage, characterized by logical thought concerning tangible objects, conservation, and subjective morality
decentration – simultaneous focusing on more than one dimension of a problem, so that flexible, reversible thought becomes possible
subjective moral judgment – according to Piaget, moral judgment that is based on the motives of the perpetrator

30. Evaluation of Piaget’s Theory
Piaget tended to underestimate children’s abilities
Egocentrism and conservation appear to be more continuous than Piaget thought
Developmental sequences do not vary

31. Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
Cognitive theory focused on influence of culture and children’s interactions with elders
Zone of proximal development (ZPD)
Scaffolding
Children internalize explanations that encourage skill development
zone of proximal development – Vygotsky’s term for the situation in which a child carries out tasks with the help of someone who is more skilled, frequently an adult who represents the culture in which the child develops.
scaffolding – Vygotsky’s term for temporary cognitive structures or methods of solving problems that help the child as he or she learns to function independently

32. Lawrence Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Use of “moral dilemma” story to explore reasoning of right and wrong
Stage theory with a specific sequence

33. Lawrence Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Preconventional Level
Base judgment on consequences of behavior
Stage 1 – Obedience and punishment
Stage 2 – Good behavior allows people to satisfy their needs
preconventional level – according to Kohlberg, a period during which moral judgments are based largely on expectation of rewards or punishment

34. Lawrence Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Conventional Level
Base judgment on conformity to conventional standards of right and wrong
Stage 3 – Good-boy orientation
Stage 4 – Judgments are based on rules that maintain social order
conventional level – according to Kohlberg, a period during which moral judgments largely reflect social conventions; a “law and order” approach to morality

35. Lawrence Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Postconventional Level
Base judgment on need to maintain social order and personal conscience

36. Evaluation of Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Research supports moral reasoning follows a sequence
Postcoventional requires formal operational thinking
Kohlberg underestimated the influence of social, cultural, and educational institutions and parents

37. Social and Emotional Development
Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Development
Eight stages that represent life crises
Trust versus Mistrust
Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt
Initiative versus Guilt
Industry versus Inferiority
These are the first four stages of Erikson’s theory representing the years of infancy through childhood

38. Attachment
Emotional tie between one animal/person and another specific individual
Mary Salter Ainsworth
Behavior that defines attachment
Attempts to maintain contact
Anxiety when separated
attachment – the enduring affectional tie that binds one person to another

39. Attachment Strange Situation Three Types of Attachment
Method to assess infants’ response to separations and reunions with caregivers and a stranger
Three Types of Attachment
Secure attachment
Avoidant attachment
Ambivalent/resistant attachment

40. Phases of Attachment Initial-preattachment phase
Initially show indiscriminate attachment
Attachment-in-the-making phase
Clear-cut-attachment phase
Fear of strangers – 8 to 10 months

41. Theoretical Views of Attachment
Behaviorists viewed attachment as learned behavior based on caregiver’s attention
Harry F. Harlow
Inborn need for contact comfort
contact comfort – a hypothesized primary drive to seek physical comfort through contact with another

42. Attachment in Infant Monkeys
Figure 9.6: Attachment in Infant Monkeys - Although this rhesus monkey infant is fed by the wire “mother,” it spends most of its time clinging to the soft, cuddly, terry cloth “mother.” It knows where to get a meal, but contact comfort is apparently more important than food in the development of attachment in infant monkeys (and infant humans).

43. Theoretical Views of Attachment
Konrad Lorenz
Ethologist – attachment is inborn
Critical period
Imprinting
Ainsworth and Bowlby
Attachment is instinctive in humans
ethologist – a scientist who studies the characteristic behavior patterns of species of animals
critical period – a period of time when an instinctive response can be elicited by a particular stimulus
imprinting – a process occurring during a critical period in the development of an organism, in which that organism responds to a stimulus in a manner that will afterward be difficult to modify

44. Parenting Styles Diana Baumrind’s styles of parenting
Connection between parental behavior and development of instrumental competence
Instrumental competence is the ability to manipulate the environment to achieve one’s goals.
Four aspects of parental behavior - 1) Restrictness; 2) Demands for child to achieve intellectual, emotional and social maturity; 3) Communication ability; 4) Warmth and involvement

45. Parenting Styles Diana Baumrind’s styles of parenting Authoritative
Authoritarian
Permissive
Uninvolved
authoritative parents – parents who are strict and warm; authoritative parents demand mature behavior but use reason rather than force in discipline
authoritarian parents – parents who are rigid in their rules and who demand obedience for the sake of obedience
permissive parents – parents who impose few, if any, rules and who do not supervise their children closely
uninvolved parents – parents who generally leave their children to themselves
Outcomes from parenting:
Authoritative – children have greatest self-reliance, self-esteem, social competence, and achievement motivation
Authoritarian – children are withdrawn or aggressive and usually do not do as well in school as children of authoritative parents
Permissive – children seem to be less mature and are often impulsive, moody, and aggressive
Uninvolved – children tend to be more likely to hang out with crowds who “party” a good deal and use drugs

46. Outcomes from Parenting Styles
Authoritative
greatest self-reliance, self esteem, social competence, achievement motivation
Authoritarian
withdrawn or aggressive

47. Outcomes from Parenting Styles
Permissive
less mature, often impulsive, moody, aggressive
Uninvolved
linked to delinquency and poor academic performance

48. Adolescence
LO3 Explain the physical, cognitive, moral, social and emotional development of adolescents.

49. Physical Development Growth spurt Puberty
Begins with appearance of secondary sex characteristics
Menarche
Usually occurs between 11 and 14
adolescence – the period of life bounded by puberty and the assumption of adult responsibilities
puberty – the period of physical development during which sexual reproduction first becomes possible
secondary sex characteristics – characteristics that distinguish females from males, such as distribution of body hair and depth of voice, but that are not directly involved in reproduction
menarche – the beginning of menstruation

50. Brain Development
Repetitive actions create increases in thickness of appropriate cerebral cortex
Immaturity of frontal lobe
Poor judgment
Excessive risks

51. Cognitive Development
Piaget’s Formal Operations Stage
Classification, logical thought, ability to hypothesize
Abstract thinking
Able to deal with hypothetical situations
Adolescent Egocentrism
Imaginary Audience
Personal Fable
formal operational stage – Piaget’s fourth stage, characterized by abstract logical thought and deduction from principles
imaginary audience – an aspect of adolescent egocentrism; the belief that other people are as concerned with our thoughts and behaviors as we are
personal fable – another aspect of adolescent egocentrism; the belief that our feelings and ideas are special and unique and that we are invulnerable

52. Moral Reasoning Kohlberg’s Postconventional Level
Most people do not reach this level
Judgment is based on person’s personal values
Stage 5 – Laws are made to preserve order but exceptions can occur
Stage 6 – Adherence to universal ethical principles
postconventional level – according to Kohlberg, a period during which moral judgments are derived from moral principles and people look to themselves to set moral standards

53. Social and Emotional Development
Independence is the challenge of adolescence
Relationships with parents and peers
Spend less time with parents
Conflicts with parents
Spend more time with peers
Peers may reinforce positive behaviors

54. Social and Emotional Development
Erikson’s Psychosocial Development
Ego Identity versus Role Diffusion
ego identity – Erikson’s term for a firm sense of who one is and what one stands for
role diffusion – Erikson’s term for lack of clarity in one’s life roles (due to failure to develop ego identity)
Four of the eight stages of Erikson’s theory were listed in infancy and childhood; ego identity versus role diffusion is the next stage which occurs during adolescence.

55. Emerging Adulthood
LO4 Explain the features of emerging adulthood.

56. Emerging Adulthood New distinction in development
Roughly between ages 18 to 25
Attend college, sort out identity, create life plans
emerging adulthood - period of development, roughly spanning the ages of 18 to 25, during which time many young people in affluent nations attend college and graduate school, sort out identity issues, and create life plans

57. Emerging Adulthood Age of identity exploration Age of instability
Age of self-focus
Age of feeling in-between
Age of possibilities

58. Adulthood
LO5 Explain the physical, cognitive, moral, social, and emotional development of adults.

59. Physical Development Early adulthood Middle adulthood Late Adulthood
Usually height of physical prowess
Middle adulthood
Gradual physical decline
Women – menopause
Late Adulthood
Bones become brittle – greater risk for falls
Slower response time
menopause – the cessation of menstruation

60. The Relentless March of Time
Figure 9.7 The Relentless March of Time
Go to 4ltrpress.cengage.com/psych for an interactive version of this figure.

61. Truth or Fiction?
The architect Frank Lloyd Wright designed New York’s innovative spiral-shaped Guggenheim Museum when he was 65 years old.
Truth or Fiction? The architect Frank Lloyd Wright designed New York’s innovative spiral-shaped Guggenheim Museum when he was 65 years old. FICTION Frank Lloyd Wright was not 65; he was actually 89!

62. Truth or Fiction?
The architect Frank Lloyd Wright designed New York’s innovative spiral-shaped Guggenheim Museum when he was 65 years old.
FICTION!
Truth or Fiction? The architect Frank Lloyd Wright designed New York’s innovative spiral-shaped Guggenheim Museum when he was 65 years old. FICTION Frank Lloyd Wright was not 65; he was actually 89!

63. Cognitive Development
Creativity can be evidenced throughout lifetime
Memory functioning declines with age
Crystallized intelligence
Fluid intelligence
Tasks that require speed and visual spatial skills decline
crystallized intelligence – one’s lifetime of intellectual achievement, as shown largely through vocabulary and knowledge of world affairs
fluid intelligence – mental flexibility as shown in learning rapidly to solve new kinds of problems

64. Truth or Fiction? Alzheimer’s disease is a normal part of aging.
Truth or Fiction? Alzheimer’s disease is a normal part of aging. FICTION Alzheimer’s disease is not a normal part of aging. Although connected with aging, it is a disease rather than a normal progression.

65. Truth or Fiction? Alzheimer’s disease is a normal part of aging.
Truth or Fiction? Alzheimer’s disease is a normal part of aging. FICTION Alzheimer’s disease is not a normal part of aging. Although connected with aging, it is a disease rather than a normal progression.

66. Alzheimer’s Disease Progressive form of mental deterioration
Affects 1 in 10 Americans between ages 65 and 74
It is a disease, not a normal progression
Alzheimer’s disease – a progressive form of mental deterioration characterized by loss of memory, language, problem solving, and other cognitive functions

67. Social and Emotional Development
Great variety based on cultural expectations and individual behavior patterns
Trends
More optimistic than previous generation
Grow psychologically healthier as they advance to middle age

68. Social and Emotional Development
Early Adulthood
Establish their independence
Middle Adulthood
Empty nest syndrome
Sandwich generation
empty-nest syndrome - a sense of depression and loss of purpose felt by some parents when the youngest child leaves home.
sandwich generation - people in middle adulthood who are responsible for meeting the needs of their children yet also responsible for aging parents.

69. Truth or Fiction?
Most parents suffer from the “empty-nest syndrome” when their youngest child leaves home.
Truth or Fiction? Most parents suffer from the “empty-nest syndrome” when their youngest child leaves home. FICTION It is not true that most parents experience an empty-nest syndrome when the youngest child leaves home.

70. Truth or Fiction?
Most parents suffer from the “empty-nest syndrome” when their youngest child leaves home.
FICTION!
Truth or Fiction? Most parents suffer from the “empty-nest syndrome” when their youngest child leaves home. FICTION It is not true that most parents experience an empty-nest syndrome when the youngest child leaves home.

71. Erikson’s Psychosocial Development
Young adulthood
Intimacy versus Isolation
Middle adulthood
Generativity versus Stagnation
Late adulthood
Ego integrity versus Despair
These are the last three stages of Erikson’s theory. The first four appeared during the infancy and childhood section – stage five during adolescence and now the last three.