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GENDER AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
GENDER EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT Education is an essential tool for achieving the goals of equality, development and peace. It is a useful tool for addressing the religious cultural impediments that deny girls access to education. Literacy in women is important for improving health nutrition and education in the family and empowering women to participate in decision making in society. Traditional practices which affect girls negatively are very noticeable in the education sector. In rural areas, girls drop out to marry so that they can earn money for their families. Parents consider the girl’s education as essential and they encourage girls dropping out to help in farming and to care for children or ill family members.
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GENDER AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Girls are more vulnerable to societal pressures than boys. An estimated, in Uganda, 1.2 million children are orphaned so girls drop outs of schools to head their families of their dead parents who, in most cases died of HIV cases. Many teachers at primary schools are untrained and in some schools the environment is not conducive for learning to girls. Teachers are reported to abuse girls sexually causing parents to prevent their girls from attending school as a protective measure. In addition, school obligations like tuition fee, uniform books food for lunch limit the number of children parents can offer to send to school.
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GENDER AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
According to UN Economic Commission for Africa Gross Enrolment Ratios are consistently on decline. Girls are at disadvantage in terms of quality, relevance and appropriateness of education and training they receive. Approximately 23% of primary school girls enter secondary institutions while less than 3% continue to the territory levels. Africa’s adult female literacy level is less than 50%, the lowest in the world. In 1990 the adult literacy rate in SSA was 61% for men and 39% for women. The high levels of illiteracy among women is a serious impediment to development and equality. (Note: Women economic participation rates are high, and its literacy rates are low….and this affect economic development. )
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GENDER AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Science Curricula in particular are gender bias. Science text books do not relate to women and girls daily experiences and fail to give recognition to women scientists. Girls are often deprived of basic education in mathematics, science and technical training, subjects which could provide the kind of knowledge girls can apply to improve their daily life and enhance their employment opportunities. Girls and women are expected to manage both educational and domestic responsibilities often resulting in poor scholastic performance and early dropouts from the educational systems.
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GENDER AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Socio cultural constraints impede women’s access to vocational and technical training and education making it difficult for them to acquire higher and relevant technical training. It is important from the states that initiatives to strengthen the capacities of African Women. (1) Vocational and technical subjects. (2) Training in gender analysis and planning. (3) Importing of skills in entrepreneurship and management. (4) Provision of extension services (5) Access to Credit (6) Introduction of new technologies. (7) Income generating skills (&food processing) Micro Finance experiences…..Prof. Mohammed Yunus. Women should be viewed and users and agents of change in science and technologies. Their technological and scientific knowledge and managerial skills should be improved to enhance their participation in industrial production and design, innovation, adoption.
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GENDER AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Advanced study in Science and Technology prepares women to take active role in technological and industrial development of their countries. This would help them even in agricultural practices. (Appropriate and simple, practical technology where women can participate and tell very well…..) The mass media are a powerful means of education and can act as a useful medium for educationist governmental and non-governmental institutions. A clear girl’s education policy, incorporating the goals of gender equality and human rights would indicate that a government recognizes the need for and is committed to planning appropriate strategies for achieving education for all.
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GENDER AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
For example, in Uganda of the four children, from every family, eligible for universal primary education, two must be girls. At Makerere University girls are awarded an extra 1.5 marks to increase the intake of female students to the university. Developing countries are experiencing financial constraints…….. Socio, cultural and religious practices militate against girl’s education among which are Female Genital Mutilation, early marriages, and payment of bride prices.
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GENDER AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Poverty is another impediment to gender equality in education. Many rural parents and urban slum dwellers are too poor to offer education to all their children. Extreme poverty, compounded by war and displacement, inadequate food, lack of fertile land, drought, famine and lack of scholastic materials and cloths are all factors that hinder girls participating rates in the education system. Strategies for improving girl’s education (UNICEF) 1. Promotion of Health, sanitation and nutrition sector in the schools. 2. Promotion of unified education system (Formal and Non-formal sectors) 3. Enhancing capacity building. 4. Advocating affirmative policies.
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GENDER AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
5. Supporting curriculum and adopting new teaching methods. 6. Providing income, shelter fee to orphaned girls. 7. Ensuring that girl’s complete basic education. 8. Eliminate the gender gap in basic and functional literacy. 9. Encourage adult education. 10. Encourage life skills.
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GENDER AND HEALTH DEVELOPMENT
The message of Uganda’s Minister of Health, Jim Muhwezi, on the occasion of World Health Day was that healthy mothers and children are the bedrock (foundation) of a healthy and prosperous nation. 10.6 million children die., 40 % of them in the first month of life. 63 out of every 100 babies are delivered by an untrained attendant. Poverty and social exclusion , low levels of education domestic violence are powerful underlying causes of maternal death and disability. They suffer from infectious diseases such as malaria, tuberculosis or HIV Aids , undernourished and anaemic are at greater risk.
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When a mother is ill or dies her productive contribution to the home, workplace, economy and society is lost and the survival and education of her children are jeopardized. The most sufferers are the girls. Frequent illness and malnutrition has a negative effect on the cognitive development, body size and strength of young children.
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All children must be immunized against diseases to ensure healthy growth and development.
One quarter of all adult women living in the developing world today suffer from some kind of illness, malnutrition, how can we expect healthy children? 60% of the pregnant women are anaemic and cannot work because poverty, consequences can be severe for children.
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Women are more likely than men to spend their own income on improving family welfare through additional food, health care, school supplies and clothing for children. Rural women deprived of the medical services, because of the distance to a health care centres, the costs of consultation fee, and transportation.
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To promote maternal health and sustainable development, the government and other role players should improve women’s status and raise awareness about the consequences of poor maternal health. Female infanticide and sex selective abortions are more India and China. In many developing countries a decrease in public health spending and structural adjustment contributes to the deterioration of public health systems. Privatisation of health is very expensive , poor sections of the people cannot afford.
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Adolescent girls are both biologically and psychologically more vulnerable than boys to sexual abuse, violence rape and prostitution and to the consequences of unprotected and premature sexual relations. ( many people they are not aware of that they infected by HIV /Aids and sexually transmitted diseases b/c of costly medical expenses and ignorance in poor countries.)
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In rural areas most girls between years are mothers, some with more than four children. Early marriages, and motherhood curtails educational and employment opportunities for women. The United Nations Commission for African (1995) reports that Africa has the world’s highest fertility rate, lowest life expectancy (49 for men, 52 for women),highest infant mortality rate (103 deaths per 1000 live births),highest maternal mortality rates and highest dependency rate (47% under 14 years and 3 %over 65 years.)
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The government should play the role:
1. provide free medical services 2. ensure primary centres in rural areas 3.promote family planning 4. include in school curricula the basic health 5. strengthen policies and strategies of government.
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GENDER POLITICS AND DEVELOPMENT
The French revolution gave birth to a very important component of modern civilization and the concept of human rights. But did this revolution ever consider the women’s status? According to Rodfeudd (1992) argued the democracy that arose from the French revolution was limited the importance of women in revolutionary France. The French women’s clubs that began in 1789 were all closed by 1795 on the grounds that women did not possess enough physical or mental strength to exercise their rights.
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French women had to continue fighting for their rights until the 1930s and during the first world war women were able to prove their worth, women did men’s job in the factories. Women’s suffrage was the first and most important of the political rights demanded by women because the vote is the very source of power in a democratic system. Nassali (2000) says that for a long time women in Uganda were excluded from participating in politics and democracy.
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In the nationwide elections in 1957 women were denied the right to vote on account of the restrictions imposed on franchise, which included property, income and work as pre-qualification for voting. National statistics (1998) reveal that women continue to be grossly under-represented in decision making, policy formulation in local governments.
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Kwoba and Kashagire (1998) evaluated civic education and found that most women are unwilling to participate in politics because of domestic responsibilities. Their husbands may refuse to give permission. Those women who do try find other women reluctant to vote for women to represent. Echo (2002) states that gender issues, women’s rights and social gender relations are of real concern to the government and NGOs.
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Globally only 10% of the members of legislative bodies and a lower percentage of ministerial positions are held by women. Although women are the majority of voters at the grassroots level, they continue to be under represented as candidates for public office. Discriminatory cultural and religious attitudes, responsibilities relating to family and childcare, agricultural work and the high cost and demands of holding a public office, discourage women from participating.
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The universal declaration of human rights states that everyone has the right to take part in the government of his or her country. The empowerment and autonomy of women and the improvement of women’s social, economic and political status is essential for the achievement of both transparent and accountable government and administration and sustainable development of in all areas of life.
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Government’s role: 1. promote a policy of mainstreaming a gender perspective 2. establish the goal of gender balance with government bodies. Promote equal rights for both women and men in political activities.
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GENDER,ECONOMY AND DEVELOPMENT
According to Kwesiga, women continue to lag behind in terms of economic growth and development because they do not have access to land, agricultural produce or markets, earn low incomes, have no assets and do not inherit any land or property. Women are the poorest members of society. Mosers(1989) says that women are not primary owners of land, property and rights to land inheritance. Without land rights women cannot develop and realize equality with men.
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Businge (2003) observed that Bakiga men do not give women land but make money from the women’s labor. Bakiga women and children till the land, but men sell products of their family and spend money on alcohol or to marry more wives. In rural areas micro finance projects run by NGO’s lend money to poor women, but few women apply for loans because they are too poor and fear they might mismanage the money or they fear that their husbands might appropriate the money and squander it.
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Businge observes that gender inequality hampers household productivity
Businge observes that gender inequality hampers household productivity. She notes that export drive favours men, while women are pushed deeper into poverty. She mentions Kabale district, where the government provided arabica coffee beans to households for cultivation. Wives and children planted and cared for the coffee trees, but the sale of coffee improved only the financial status of men. (this has happened even in fishing processing and marketing)
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This demoralize women, as they work for nothing
This demoralize women, as they work for nothing. Denying women a share of what they have worked for is an act of economic violence. Discrimination in education and training, remuneration, promotion and horizontal mobility practices, inflexible working hours, lack of access to productive resources, inadequate sharing of family responsibilities.
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Globalisation including economic integration can create pressures on the employment opportunities for women, who have to adjust to new circumstances and to find new sources of employment, as patterns of trade change. More analysis needs to be done on the impact of globalisation on women’s economic status. These trends have been characterized by low wages , little or no labor standards, protection, poor working conditions, (health and safety)low skill levels, a lack of job security and social security in both the formal and informal sectors)
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Some of the measures to be taken by the government:
1. promote an active and visible policy should be made effectively for women. 2. promoting women’s economic rights and independence, including access to employment. 3. adopting and implementing laws against discrimination based on sex in the labor market. 4. reaching out to rural and urban women involved in micro, small and medium-scale enterprises, paying special attention to low income women, the marginalised and those who lack access to capital, land loans, the marginalised and those who lack access to capital, land loans etc., 5. expanding women’s access to financial markets and supporting them in their small and large enterprises, paying attention to women’s needs while disseminating market and trade information
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GENDER,POVERTY AND DEVELOPMENT
Today more than 1 billion people worldwide, the majority of whom are women, live in acceptable conditions of poverty, mostly in developing countries. Poverty has various causes. Poverty is a complex, multi –dimensional problem with origins in both national and international domains. A significant trend has increased poverty of women. Migration and consequent changes in family structures have placed additional burdens on women.
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Macroeconomic policies need rethinking and reformulation to address poverty. These policies focus almost exclusively on the formal sector. But most of the women are informal sector. In order to eradicate poverty and achieve sustainable development, women and men must participate fully and equally in the formulation of macro economic and social policies for the eradication of poverty.
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The eradication of poverty cannot be accomplished by poverty programs alone, but will require democratic participation and changes in economic structures to ensure access for all women to resources, opportunities and public services. Poverty has various manifestations, including lack of income and production, lack of sufficient resources to ensure a sustainable livelihood, hunger and malnutrition, ill health, limited access to education and basic services.
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Although women constitute more than half of the population and have limited access to ownership of land and housing, they nevertheless provide 60 to 80% of the food supply. Women are the backbone of both cash crops and subsistence farming. Measures to reduce or eliminate poverty are major parameters growth, empowerment and overall political stability. Women’s right to development, of which they are being deprived, should be recognized explicitly. The following are some of the suggestions to eradicate women poverty.
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Supporting women’s sustainable livelihoods
Support the full participation and empowerment of women and girls in society. Enforcing laws that will remove barriers to the economic participation of women. Pursuing and implementing stable macro economic policies that are designed for women. Providing adequate safety nets. Integrating women in all economic activities.
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THE WOMEN’S LIBERTATION MOVEMENT
The women’s liberation movement had its origins in related liberation movements and represents as attempt by women to free themselves from all sources of oppression, whether religious, cultural, economical, political. Today women still struggle energetically to free themselves from oppression.
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The women’s liberation movement is a complex feminist movement with many layers. The movement is active within liberal democratic societies and endeavors to achieve full inclusion of women in political, economic and religious life and access to equal employment. Objectives: The common objective of all women’s efforts is absolute elimination of discrimination and injustices against women.
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Improvement of women’s conditions as a result of a change in mentality and attitude, which must take place first. The campaign for women’s rights is concerned with achieving equality in education, recognition, social awareness, economic independence, employment, business, medical care and politics.
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Causes and Background of women’s liberation movement:
The world’s first ever women’s liberation movement convention was held in 1848 in Seneca Falls, New York where feminists demanded for women’s suffrage and other reforms. Women in the world over face similar problems of oppression and subordination emanating from their cultural, social, religious and biological situations.
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Causes of the Worldwide Liberation Movement:
Throughout human history, women have been dominated, discriminated against, despised and viewed as inferior to men. They have experienced feelings of frustration in the male dominated society. Women have been treated as second class citizens have been bartered and sold for bride wealth.
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Before the abolition of slavery in America many black women were sexually abused, bartered and forced to do surrogate work(responsibilities of child caring of mistresses) The world history shows women worldwide being treated as slaves, denied the right to vote and to participate in democracy.
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Many African communities think that the only vocation for a woman is to marry and produce children. A barren woman does not fit in society, she has no important role to play, and all the blame is only for woman, even if man is biologically unfit in some cases. When women divorce, they take away nothing, even when they have contributed to the acquisition of their husband’s property.
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In most African societies women are blamed for calamities that befall men misfortunes, disease, poverty etc., they are considered as the cause of the suffering which men face and this leads to their oppression. INTERNATIONAL LAW : Gender violence and international human rights law: The international human law emerged in the context of activism and research on issues related to the social status of women and their right to participate in public activities. Gender violence was recognised as an instrument of controlling female sexuality.
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The United Nation’s decade for women(1975)was a catalyst for exposure of gender violence. In the first international tribunal for crimes against women was organised in Brussels. In the mid 1980’s Women in Development (WID) realised that economic constraints, education, religion and culture were the main roots of women’s marginalisation. The Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women(CEDAW) held in 1989 and 1992 led to the most important legal documents dealing with the human rights of women.
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CEDAW (1989,1992) stress that gender based violence impairs or nullifies the enjoyment by women of human rights and fundamental freedoms under general international law or under human rights conventions. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights proclaims a broad catalogue of rights Article:1 humans are born free and equal dignity and rights. Article:2 all human beings are entitled to enjoy
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All the rights and freedoms
Article:3 everyone has the right to life, liberty Article:4 prohibits all forms of sexual and physical violence, rape Article :5 prohibits cruel ,inhuman treatment Article :11 equal opportunities for employment, sexual harassment Article:12 equal rights to medical health care
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Article:16 right to marry and establish families
Article :23 equal pay for equal work Article:25 right to standard of living Achievements of women’s liberation: 1. Many women have organized themselves into groups for generating money for small projects 2. Women are found employment as managers and directors. 3. Men are beginning to appreciate women’s work 4. Women participating in politics. 5. In rural areas the government has set up health centers, schools
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Negative effects of women’s liberation:
1. Many families are experiencing instability which often leads to divorce resulting from women and men trying to dominate one another, adultery and misunderstanding of women emancipation and liberation movements.
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Obstacles to women’s liberation:
All human relations are affected by sexuality. when men and women are together, sexual identity and differences in roles affect the functions that they carry out. Prostitution hinders women’s liberation. This will lead to unfavourable living and destroys their souls. Polygamy undermines women’s liberation Poverty ties down women and makes them dependent on men.
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Gender Equality and Empowerment
Gender is about empowerment and the process of sensitization. Empowerment stresses self reliance in all aspects of life such as 1. development of women’s abilities and self reliance through earning, owning assets and managing finances 2. develop women confidence at places of work, 3. right to freedom of movement
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Development Approaches to Gender :
Women in Development (WID): Women should be integrated into existing development programs. Need to have women’s projects, increase women’s productivity, increase their incomes. A good number of women are excluded from economic, political and educational opportunities.
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Gender and Development:(GAD)
The 1995 Commonwealth Plan of Action on Gender and Development is blue print for Commonwealth action to achieve gender equality. It is an innovative complex and forward looking plan for mainstreaming gender issues into all the policies, programs and activities of governments. A secretariat to ensure social justice, equality and fulfillment for all.
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The objectives of GAD: Improving women’s access to basic education and economic resources. Promoting women’s participation in leadership and decision making Promoting the human rights of women. 1.Sustainable development requires an understanding of both men and women roles and responsibilities in the community. 2. Improving the status of women 3. It works to empower the women 4. It addresses the strategic interests of women 5. it examine the priorities of women.
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The Millennium Development Goals:
The gender equality and the millennium development goals are concerned with poverty, education, health and nutrition and the environment. The goals challenge discrimination against women and seek to ensure that all children have equal access to schooling. Its aim is to see more women becoming literate, having greater say in public policy and enjoying improved income and projects. It stresses that without progress towards gender equality and the empowerment of women, all the other millennium goals will not be achieved.
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The benefits of integrating gender into development:
1. Women and men are involved and democracy and human rights are respected. 2.Participation by both female and male is promoted and full community participation is ensured. 3.women who are marginalised are motivated.
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Gender Structural Constraints:
Bride Price: Research in Uganda found that a wife for whom bride wealth was paid is expected to produce a great number of children. If bride price has been paid and the husband dies, the wife has limited chances of remarrying outside her husband’s family, thus ,she is “inherited”, because the parents and brothers of the woman cannot afford to refund the dowry.
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Disadvantages of bride price:
Payment of dowry hinders the emancipation of women since it gives the impression that women are the property of men and that they can be bought. It strengthens men’s authority over women. Women work like hired labors , as if they have to pay back the dowry. Payment of bride price is a major source of inequality.
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Polygamy: This is a common practice in African countries. It gives men prestige, as many children are produced expanding the man’s lineage. In case one woman is indisposed, another can fulfill obligations, and responsibilities towards the husband. Consequences of polygamy: It undermines equality between men and women. It lowers women’s self esteem It causes conflicts in the families. It hinders women’s liberation.
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Gender and Rural Development:
Rural development strategies must be such that rural poor should overcome poverty. Rural areas must be developed in terms of economy, communication ,agriculture and politics. Loans and microfinance, and credit facilities should be made available.
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Major causes of poverty among rural women:
Income disparities between men and women Male headed families Gender bias is still an issue. Domestic work is unpaid Many religions discourage women’s employment outside.
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Gender Mainstreaming and Development
Gender mainstreaming is a process in which women’s and men’s development challenges and needs as well as development impacts on both men and women are clarified throughout the process of formulation, project planning implementation, monitoring and evaluation, on the premise that all policies, interventions and projects have different impacts on men and women.
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The ultimate goals of gender mainstreaming is to achieve gender equality:
Identify existing gaps between the genders. Promote and carryout gender oriented research Make a effort to address gender disparities. Establish gender responsive monitoring and evaluation mechanisms for development.
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Tanzarn (2004) defines gender mainstreaming as a dimension that is explicit and verifiable at institutional and operational levels including phases of policy formulation, identification, design, appraisal, implementation and evaluation. Gender mainstreaming comprises two major aspects: 1. integrating gender into analyses and formulation of all policies, plans, programs and projects which are politically, socially, and economically just. 2.initiatives intended to enable girls and women as well as boys and men to formulate and express their views and participate in decision making across all programs and institutional issues.
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Approaches and strategies for achieving the policy of Gender Mainstreaming:
Mainstreaming strategies are being adopted by development cooperation agencies and institutions of higher learning as a means of supporting efforts to achieve equality between men and women. One way of understanding gender mainstreaming is to differentiate three targets as institutional areas for action. 1. The state, its institutions, laws and government policies. 2. Development and cooperation programs 3. The agency itself, its structures and procedures.
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The strategies to bring women into the mainstream :
1. strengthening women’s groups 2. gender awareness and analysis training 3. promoting a critical mass of women inside development organisations. 4. promoting appropriate education 5.Promoting a holistic and integrated approach
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Specific approaches: 1. strengthening gender analysis and promoting women’s participation. 2. Providing assistance to policies and institutions that promote gender equality. 3. gender capacity building 4. addressing poverty issues. 5. sustainable growth 6. promotion of human rights
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Challenges of Gender Mainstreaming:
1. Limited awareness 2. the misconception that gender concerns are women’s concerns. 3. the misconception that gender mainstreaming is meant for the elite rather than rural people who are poor. 4. governments, NGOs’ and policy makers face constraints in terms of inadequate technical and financial resources. 5. inadequate gender disaggregated data.
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Gender planning: A strategy for meeting gender needs:
Moser’s (1989) says that while the role women play in most societies is widely recognised, conceptual awareness of the issues of gender and development has not resulted in planning practice. Gender planning relates to the identification of women’s triple roles (reproduction,production,and communitywork).
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Policy makers have started to shift their focus from a universal concern with welfare-oriented, family-centered programs ,which assumed motherhood as the most important role for women in the development process. Women are an untapped resource that can make an economic contribution to development. This has an important influence on popularizing income generating projects for women.
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Curriculum and Gender Mainstreaming:
In many African countries both the curriculum and the teaching-learning process tend to be gender-biased to the detriment of girls. Teachers should: Pay equal attention to boys and girls Encourage and motivate girls Emphasize participation be aware of the problems of women Create a learning environment
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Parents should: Treat their daughters and sons the same Support girls education Expose girls to leadership.
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