1. 1 Chapter 6 Motivation Concepts

2. 2 Learning Objectives Describe the three elements of motivation. Identify four early theories of motivation and evaluate their applicability today. Apply the predictions of Cognitive Evaluation theory to intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. Compare and contrast goal-setting theory and Management by Objectives. Contrast reinforcement theory and goal-setting theory. Demonstrate how organizational justice is a refinement of equity theory. Apply the key tenets of expectancy theory to motivating employees. Compare contemporary theories of motivation. Explain to what degree motivation theories are culture-bound.

3. 3 Defining Motivation Motivation The processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal – specifically, an organizational goal

4. 4 Early Theories of Motivation Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory Physiological Needs Security / Safety Needs Social / Belongingness Needs Esteem Needs Self Actualization Needs General ExamplesOrganizational Examples SustenanceBase Salary StabilityPension Plan FriendshipFriends in Work StatusJob Title AchievementChallenging Job Individuals cannot move to the next higher level until all needs at the current (lower) level are satisfied Must move in hierarchical order

5. 5 Early Theories of Motivation Alderfer’s ERG Theory Importance of Growth Needs Importance of Relatedness Needs Importance of Existence Needs Frustration of Existence Needs Satisfaction of Existence Needs Satisfaction of Relatedness Needs Frustration of Relatedness Needs Frustration of Growth Needs satisfaction of Growth Needs Removed the hierarchical assumption - Can be motivated by all three at once Popular, but not accurate, theory

6. 6 Early Theories of Motivation McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y Theory X (basically positive)Theory X (basically negative)  Workers are self-directed  Enjoy work  Accept responsibility  Workers have little ambition  Dislike work  Avoid responsibility Managers used a set of assumptions based on their view The assumptions molded their behavior toward employees No empirical evidence to support this theory

7. 7 Early Theories of Motivation Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory = Supervision = Working Conditions = Interpersonal Relationships = Pay and Job Security = Company Policies = Achievement = Recognition = The Work it self = Responsibility = Advancement and Growth The Traditional View SatisfactionDissatisfaction The Herzberg’s View SatisfactionDissatisfaction The Motivation Factors SatisfactionNo Satisfaction The Hygiene Factors No Dissatisfaction Dissatisfaction Extrinsic to the WorkIntrinsic to the Work Key Point: Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not opposites but separate constructs

8. 8 Early Theories of Motivation Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Herzberg is limited by his procedure - Participants had self-serving bias Reliability of raters questioned - Bias or errors of observation No overall measure of satisfaction was used Herzberg assumed, but didn’t research, a strong relationship between satisfaction and productivity

9. 9 Early Theories of Motivation McClelland’s Three Needs Theory Need for Achievement The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed Need for Power The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise Need for Affiliation The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships People have varying levels of each of the three needs which is hard to measure Prefer to undertake activities with a 50/50 chance of success – avoiding very low or high risk situations Be motivated in jobs that offer high degree of personal responsibility, feedback, and moderate risk Don’t necessarily make good managers – too personal a focus Most good general managers do not have a high need for achievement Need high level of need for power and low need for affiliation for managerial success Good research support but it is not a very practical theory

10. 10 Contemporary Theories of Motivation Cognitive Evaluation Theory Providing an extrinsic reward for behavior that had been previously only intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivation Self-concordance When the personal reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with personal interests and core values (intrinsic motivation), people are happier and more successful.

11. 11 Contemporary Theories of Motivation Goal Setting Theory That specific and difficult goals, with self-generated feedback, lead to higher performance. Why difficult goals? Relationship between goals and performance depends on: Goal commitment (the more public the better!) - Task characteristics (simple, well- learned) - Culture (best match is in North America)

12. 12 Contemporary Theories of Motivation Goal Setting Theory (Implementing Goal Setting) Management by Objectives (MBO) A program that encompasses specific goals, participatively set, for an explicit time period, with feedback on goal progress MBO is a systematic way to utilize goal-setting Goals must be: Tangible – Verifiable - Measurable Corporate goals are broken down into smaller, more specific goals at each level of organization. Four common ingredients to MBO programs: Goal Specificity - Participative decision making - Explicit time period - Performance feedback

13. 13 Contemporary Theories of Motivation Self-Efficacy Theory Self Efficacy An individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task Greater confidence Greater persistence in the face of difficulties Better response to negative feedback (work harder) That’s why self-efficacy complements goal-setting theory Increasing self-efficacy: Enactive mastery Vicarious modeling Verbal persuasion Arousal

14. 14 Contemporary Theories of Motivation Reinforcement Theory Behavior is a function of its consequences Environment Thought are ignored Behavior is controlled by its consequences Not a motivational theory but a means of analysis of behavior

15. 15 Contemporary Theories of Motivation Equity Theory Employees compare their ratios of outcomes-to-inputs of relevant others and then respond to eliminate any inequities When ratios are equal: state of equity exists – no tension as the situation is considered fair When ratios are unequal: tension exists due to unfairness EquityUnder rewarded – Over rewarded Compared With Outcomes (self) Inputs (self)Inputs (others) Outcomes (others)

16. 16 Contemporary Theories of Motivation Equity Theory Motivation to Inequity Change inputsChange outcomes Distort/change perceptions of selfDistort/change perceptions of others Choose a different referent personLeave the field Motivation to Equity Maintain current situation Referent Comparisons Self-InsideSelf-Outside Others-InsideOthers-Outside

17. 17 Contemporary Theories of Motivation Equity Theory Distributive Justice Procedural Justice Interactional Justice Organizational Justice An overall perception of what is fair in the workplace Perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals Perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards The perceived degree to which an individual is treated with dignity, concern, and respect

18. 18 Contemporary Theories of Motivation Expectancy Theory The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of the outcome to the individual Individual Effort Individual Performance Organizational Rewards Personal Goals 123 Effort - Performance Relationship Performance – Reward Relationship Rewards- Personal Goals Relationship

19. 19 Integrating Contemporary Theories of Motivation Individual Effort Individual Performance Organizational Rewards Personal Goals

20. 20 Global Implications Motivation theories are often culture-bound Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory Order of needs is not universal McClelland’s Three Needs Theory Presupposes a willingness to accept risk and performance concerns – not universal traits Adams’ Equity Theory A desire for equity is not universal “Each according to his need” – socialist/former communists Desire for interesting work seems to be universal There is some evidence that the intrinsic factors of Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory may be universal