1. The Cognitive Level of Analysis
IB Psychology

2. Introduction Current view of the cognitive level
Psychologists recognize that the mind has a biological basis and develops within a cultural context
Has it always been this way?

3. A long, long time ago… (19th centuryish)
Early psychologists were cognitive psychologists
Wilhelm Wundt ( )
Studied sensation, perception, and attention
Hermann Ebbinghaus ( )
Studied memory
J. Ridley Stroop
Published famous Stroop test in 1935
BUT…Cognitive psychology was not promoted as the primary way of thinking in the US by the 1930s
More fascinated with John Watson

5. John Watson and Behaviorism
Proposed that introspection was not appropriate for the scientific study of behavior.
Until the 1960s, behaviorism dominated psychology
Some still chose to study cognitive processing
Lev Vygotsky
Jean Piaget
Frederick Bartlett

6. Changing the way we think about behavior…
Noam Chomsky gave presentation at MIT about nativist language theory (language is innate)
Clear that there was support for change
1957
B.F. Skinner wrote Verbal Behavior
Language was really a behavior
A chain of verbal behaviors reinforced through verbal operants and maintained by the sociocultural environment
Chomsky criticized the verbal behavior principles
Creative use of language was unexplainable and untestable through Skinnerian principles

7. Jerome Bruner (1990) and the demise of the traditional learning theories
Cognitive Revolution
“Absorbed the concept of learning into the broader concept of the acquisition of knowledge”
Transactionalism
Still rearranging psychology
“It was the view that human action could not be fully or properly accounted for from the inside out—by reference only to intrapsychic dispositions, traits, learning capacities, motives, or whatever. Action required for its explication that it be situated, that it be conceived of as continuous with a cultural world.”
Bruner’s theory spans all three levels of analysis and is important to the future of psychology

8. 2.1 Outline principles that define the cognitive level of analysis
Cognitive psychologists assume that there is an important biological basis for human cognitive processing and its resultant behavior but focus research on how the brain translates into mind.
Mental processing in the mind can be studied scientifically. Theories of cognitive processing are studied through various methods.
Behavior change is explained as a result of cognitive processing that goes on in the mind. The steps of cognitive processing are:
A. Information is acquired from the world.
B. The information is stored.
C. Stored information is represented in the mind.
D. Internal representations direct behavior.

9. Studying LANGUAGE as a cognitive process
Language is the most fundamental of all the cognitive processes and is responsible for the development and use of the other human cognitive processes, such as memory and perception.
Language is the vehicle of cultural transmission and social learning
Language separates humans and animals. Animal models are not very useful for studying sophisticated human cognitive processing. Animal studies primarily show the limitations of animal “language” and “thinking.” Animal “thinking” is limited to the world of objects; language is required. All other cognitive processes are removed from objects because of language.
Language is probably the most important of the sophisticated cognitive processes that humans evolved so that we could live together in cultures. It is part of the evolution of social intelligence.

10. Section 3.5 Page 32-36
Give each group a section to present to the class.

11. Mental Processes Guide Behavior
Mind is an information-processing machine using hardware (the brain) and software (mental images and representations).
Information input into the mind comes via bottom-up processing—from the sensory system. This information is processed by the mind by top-down processing via pre-stored information in the memory. Finally, there is output in the form of behavior.

12. Mental Processes Guide Behavior
There is a relationship between how people think about themselves and how they behave
Ex. – How people deal with challenges.
A person’s mindset is important in predicting behavior.
People who have fixed ideas about other people (stereotyping) may be more prone to discriminate.

13. Mental Processes Guide Behavior
Reconstructive nature of memory
People do not store exact copies of their experiences, but an outline which is filled out with information when it is recalled.
False memories
Individuals cannot distinguish between what they have experienced and what they have heard after the event.
The brain creates illusions which are so realistic that we believe they are true.
Examples?

14. Mental Processes Guide Behavior
This is related to PERCEPTION
Cognitive process that interprets and organizes information from the senses to produce some meaningful experience of the world.
Context, frequency, or recency influence the way people interpret an ambiguous object or event.
What people think is objectively experienced may instead be the result of the brain’s interpretation of the object or event.

15. Mental Processes Guide Behavior
Perception and Necker cube
Is the dot on the near or far corner? What happens if you stare at the dot for a long time?
The image has two equally meaningful interpretations and the brain simply switches back and forth between them.
The brain interprets the picture the way it wants to, searching for some meaning because it does not have enough information to know exactly which face of the cube is in front.
What we see is the “best guess” of our visual system, and the brain decides which one is favored.

17. Think about this
“Our experience of the world—how we see it, remember it, and imagine it—is a mixture of stark reality and comforting illusion.”
Daniel Gilbert

18. Language is fundamental to human culture.
“The Ragin’ Cajun”– The Mind Traveler
Films from the Humanities and Sciences
Monkey in the Mirror

19. Naturalistic observation Interviews Questionnaires Case Studies
Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the cognitive level of analysis, including ethical concerns.
Experiments
Correlation studies
Naturalistic observation
Interviews
Questionnaires
Case Studies
Psychobiological research
Computer Simulations

20. Experiments Mainly using humans Lab, qausi-, and field
Show cause and effect
Lab experiment
Clarify theoretical rather than real-life applications
Supposed to be artificial
Ex.: Jerome Bruner and language “Evaluate two methods or theories of one cognitive process.”

21. Quasi-experiments
Used when researchers cannot randomly assign participants to conditions.
Cross-cultural research and studies comparing males and females use this design (placed in groups according to culture or gender)
Do not have same control as a lab exp.

22. Field Experiment
Test experimental conditions in the natural environment
Do not have as much control as lab exp. but are more ecologically valid
Ex. Cross-cultural study on own-race bias (ORB) and eyewitness testimony “To what extent is one cognitive process reliable?”

23. Correlation Studies Shows relationship between two variables
Used when it is unethical or difficult to create conditions in a lab
Ex.: Correlation data was used in addition to the field experiment data in the ORB study on eyewitness testimony.

24. Naturalistic Observation
High ecological validity
Lack of control
Ex. Michael Cole’s study on the Kpelle in Africa “Discuss how social or cultural factors affect one cognitive process.”

25. Interviews Verbal protocols Self-reports Narrative interview
Useful in cross-cultural studies
Participants “tell their story”
Useful for designing culturally valid experiments
Weaknesses
Time consuming
Experimenter Bias
The process of gathering data might interfere with cognitive processing

26. Questionnaires Limitations Reliability of self-report
Ex. Cross-cultural study on flashbulb memories “Evaluate one theory of how emotion may affect one cognitive process”

27. Case Studies
Use information gathered from a wide range of sources, such as interviews and observations
Rely on psychobiological case studies to examine brain deficits on cognitive processing
Allow researchers to gather detailed data about individuals that might not otherwise be available
Limitation
Cases are not representative of a larger group
Ex. Emotions and the brain “To what extent do cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion?”

28. Psychobiological Research
Cognitive processing and biological research studied together
Provides hard evidence of what happens in the brain during cognitive processing
Limitations
This evidence cannot answer questions about brain functioning
Information gathered from abnormal brains does not provide a full explanation of cognitive processing
Ex. fMRI study on the interaction of biology and cognition in emotion “To what extent do cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion?”

29. Computer Simulation
They say nothing about how cognitions are situated within a cultural context!!!
Processes in computer simulations and in studies using artificial intelligence are not necessarily the same process as a human brain uses.

30. Ethics of Cognitive Research
Sometimes humans cannot be studied.
Not usually the case, but sometimes animals are used to examine how a specific brain deficit relates to the ability to process information.
Researchers, therefore, can create brain deficits.
Deception is sometimes used in human experiments. To use deception, the scientific benefits of a study must be such that it outweighs the rights of participants to be informed.

31. Ethics of Cognitive Research
Researchers should make every reasonable effort to protect participants from harm. If someone is going to be exposed to harm, the informed consent form should outline the risks associated with the study in advance.
Ex.: Studies documenting cognitive deficits caused by sleep deprivation in labs
Informed consent forms are critical components of research at the cognitive level. All participants should be debriefed about the exact nature of the study as soon as possible after their participation.
Observation studies DO NOT need the consent of participants as long as the researcher does not alter the natural environment in any way and the identity of everyone observed remains anonymous.

32. Cognitive Processes are Influenced by Social and Cultural Factors
Frederick Bartlett
Coined the term schema
(a mental representation of knowledge)
Bartlett was interested in how cultural schemas influence remembering
Found that people had problems remembering a story from another culture, and that they reconstructed the story to fit in with their own cultural schemas
People remember in terms of meaning and what make sense to them
Therefore, memory is subject to distortions
And this can be studied scientifically

33. Schemas
Mental representations that can refer to objects, ideas, and people in the real world
We use them when we think, make plans, imagine, or daydream
Ex.: You have an idea of who you are and how you look in your mind—a self-representation; You also have ideas about how other people are
Mental representations are organized in categories, and the mind contains all sorts of mental representations stored in memory

34. Schemas
The ability to manipulate mental images enable us to think about situations and imagine what might happen.
Ex.: Reading a book
We also have expectations…how people are going to fare (good guys vs. bad guys) because of pre-stored mental representations (cognitive schemas)
“Mental representations” are how we store images and ideas in memory
Memory researchers believe that what we already know affects the way we interpret events and store knowledge in our memory

35. Schema theory
Schema theory suggests that what we already know will influence the outcome of information processing
Based on the assumption that “humans are active processors of information”
Encoding (put into memory), storage (maintain in memory), retrieval (recover from memory)

36. Limitations of schema theory
Not entirely clear how schemas are acquired in the first place and how they actually influence cognitive processes
Cohen (1993) criticized theory saying that it is too vague to be useful
Daniel Gilbert “the brain is a wonderful magician but a lousy scientist”
The brain searches for meaningful patterns but does not check whether they are correct.

37. Let’s Review Schemas We have schemas for everything we do
It is a fundamental part of modern psychology
Span all levels of analysis
Biologically based
We categorize information and the categories change as we age and interact
Culture determines the content of schemas
Schemas influence the mind

38. Evaluate Schema Theory with Reference to Research Studies
Humans are born with basic survival behaviors that form the basis of schemas (ie. bonding) but MOST schemas develop within one’s cultural context
Cultural schemas are part of CAD (cultural acquisition device)…they are built in
Cultures do not just filter perceptions but actively build schemas about expected behavior
Ex.: Konner 2007, In New Guinea it is common practice to give all goods and services to one respected man who is trusted to distribute them fairly. Attitudes about handling all goods and services reflect this practice.

39. Evaluate schema theory with reference to research studies
Schemas and mental illness
Genetic determinism is no longer acceptable in explaining mental illness
Cultural schemas offer a better framework
All cultures have schemas about abnormal behavior…but the details vary

40. Evaluate schema theory Schemas and Mental illness
Richard Castillo (1997)
Cognitive schemas are created in cultural groups based on how the group thinks about and experiences behaviors
These cog. schemas reify a belief into something real for the group
Reifying “occurs when people are collectively projecting onto an object a level of reality the object does not actually possess.”
The way a behavior is thought of in a cultural group is real to them, even if it does not exist in reality.
The brain adapts to these cultural schemas and the group treats a set of behaviors as real mental illnesses
How does reification give us an international perspective on all behaviors?
It influences how societies come to label anything as important, sch as intelligence or achievement testing…Do not assume that others outside of your culture share your schemas!!!

41. Evaluate schemas theory How do schemas form about mental illness?
Castillo
A specific behavior is noticed by a cultural group and is interpreted as a mental illness within a cultural definition
Neuroplasticity—how schemas grow and change
Schemas serve three purposes
Representational
Serving important symbolic functions for a group
Constructive
Consisting of a social agreement about what is important to a society that is communicated through stories
Directive
Telling people what is important to do.

42. Evaluate schemas theory Schemas and mental illness
Depression
It is difficult to diagnose depression outside of Western cultures
“Major depression” – in US, there is a specific set of behaviors
Based on how stress is generally expressed in US
It is ethnocentric to believe this is how someone experiences depression in other cultures
Etics and emics help explain why…

43. Schemas and Mental Illness
Stress is an etic
Something common to all cultures
Different experiences in expressing stress
These are emics
Example: The word depression means something different in Pakistan
An interview study about the emics of depression in Pakistani ethnic groups living in the United Kingdom

44. Schemas and Mental Illness
China
Stress is more often experienced in bodily symptoms
CCMD (Chinese Classification of Mental Disorders)
Has category “depressive episode”, however not used as frequently as in West
Often rely on TCM for explanations and treatment or combine psychiatry and TCM
TCM makes no distinction between physical and mental health (Bodily symptoms have far greater meaning)
Castillo emphasizes that the depressive symptoms experienced in the West are not as important to Chinese cultural schemas – and little attention is paid to them

45. Gender schemas and depression
Women are diagnosed far more often than men
Depressive symptoms may be related to cultural schemas about how females are expected to express distress
Sandra Bem (1998)
Children need cognitive consistency
Once a child constructs a gender schema, this representation serves as a reference point for what is valued about being male or female
Does not believe that gender has to be a category; it is not naturally more perceptible for children than other attributes
Anything used as a category for schemas is only relevant if given functional significance for the group
Bem promotes raising children free of gender schemas

46. Gender schemas and depression
Gender schema processing is studied experimentally
Example
48 male and 48 female participants were designated as sex typed or non-sex typed through the Bem Sex Role Inventory
Viewed 61 randomly ordered words at 3 second intervals (including animal names, proper names, and clothing)
Some words were feminine and some masculine
As hypothesized both males and females recalled equal numbers of words, but the order in which the words were recalled differed between designation
Ex.: Sex-typed participant that recalls a feminine word, went on to recall a series of feminine words in clusters
Sex-typed people are more likely to create categories based around gender

47. How does this relate to depression?
According to Bem
“sex-typing results, in part, from the assimilation of the self-concept itself to the gender schema. As children learn the contents of their society’s gender schema, they learn which attributes are to be linked with their own sex, and hence, with themselves.”
Gender schemas may be related to how women experience stress!

48. Evaluate two models or theories of one cognitive process
Vygotsky and Bruner on Language
Language is primarily responsible for cognitive development.

49. Vygotsky and Language Thought and Language (1934)
Rejected the idea that animals had language
Human thought is tied to language and animal thought is not tied to their communications.
Animal abilities are limited without the technical aid of language.

50. Vygotsky and Language
Built a framework for thinking about the importance of language to a child’s development
Examined the process by which elementary thought, which is recall in children, becomes internalized abstract thought
Cognitive processes such as memory, attention, problem solving, and perception are dependent on language.
Interactionist – a child develops with the help of parents, teachers, and play
Interactions with others take place within a cultural context
Michael Cole (2003) defines Vygotsky’s context as “the social situation of development is a relational construct in which characteristics of the child combine with structure of social interactions to create the starting point for a new cycle of developmental changes which will result in a new, and higher, level of development.”

51. Vygotsky and Language
Language and thought begin as separate functions in early development
During the 2nd year, language and thought follow separate paths.
There are prelinguistic and pre-thought behavior actions in babies
When thought and language meet as the child develops, thought becomes verbal and speech rational
The child then moves rapidly into symbolic thought – far beyond animal development

52. Vygotsky and Language
Calls egocentric speech “externalized speech” and claims it is socially motivated
Represents a time in a child’s development when thought and speech are still unifying
Lang. dev. is responsible for a child’s general cognitive development
A child’s ability to think abstractly and use all of the other cognitive processes depends on language
All development depends on the social environment and what happens within the ZPD
“the difference between the actual dev. level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined though problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers.”
the difference between what a learner can do without help and what he or she can do with help

53. Vygotsky and Language Development and Learning
Learning refers to task acquisition
Development deals with level of functioning that a child exhibits
Learning awakens the developmental process
The ZPD arises from the theory of development
The ZPD creates the environment where external processing in children becomes internalized symbolic thought.
Play is an important ZPD! Why?
Vygotsky’s “sisters”
Asked real life sisters to “play” being sisters
Real life, sister behavior goes unnoticed. In play, more concerned with showing “sisterhood”
Real play is socially and culturally motivated and contributes to development
Children use language in play to make sense of the world

54. Jerome Bruner Language and cognitive development
Noam Chomsky’s LAD is an incomplete model of how children use language
Downplayed the role of parenting and culture
Bruner
Language acquisition support system (LASS)
Explains how children move from innate prelinguistic skills to making meaning within the cultural context of a child’s life
Parents are scaffolds (supporting frameworks) for development
Theories have method, observer, time, and space (cross-cultural) triangulation
Experimental evidence…BUT advocates nonexperimental methods– natural setting (real interactions between child and adult)

55. Jerome Bruner Language and Cognitive development
Human minds evolved in the context of a symbolic culture shared by others
Intersubjectivity
Interplay between adults and children long before children have actual language
Reciprocal relationship where one has an intention to connect to the other and decode what the other person intends to convey (a TOM)
Intentions are uniquely human and probably have bio basis…babies come into the world with schemas to figure out the intentions of others

56. Jerome Bruner Language and cognitive development
Ex.: A mother cat teaches her kittens how to use a litter box, but teaching is innately wired
It is not a cognitive intention coming from a sophisticated brain that is considering all the possibilities for a child
Does not consider raising child to become president.
In contrast, human scaffolds spend their time making the world manageable for children

57. Jerome Bruner Cognitive and Language Development
Cognitive development is largely dependent on language
Three phases (enactive, ikonic 2-5, symbolic 6-7)
Outcome of development depends on how children are instructed
Ex.: A mother and baby played peek-a-boo to demonstrate the intersubjective experience between mother and child. The mother initiates the game and the baby responds with babbling and eye contact in place of language at the appropriate times when language is used by the adult. This type of interaction helps the baby learn how to do things with words.
So…children need help of caregivers to develop language

58. Jerome Bruner
Children narrate more when they need to make sense out of something unusual
Joan Lucariello – discussed by Bruner 1990
4 and 5 year olds
Wanted to see what kinds of things started narratives
Children talk more about why things are different than why they are normal
Engel (1995)
Pre-schoolers and high or low emotion events
Remembered high emotion events

59. Explain how biological factors may affect one cognitive process
The process we have chosen is memory (and school performance)
The biological factors we are investigating is damage to those cortical structures within the brain where memory function is localized
Read “Some biological factors in memory”
Summarize
Read about Clive Wearing
Watch Clive Wearing video
Read about HM
Read about “A Good Night’s Sleep…”
Put info together to answer IB question
Benefits of case studies
Limitations of case studies
Ethics in research

60. Discuss how social or cultural factors affect one cognitive process
Worksheet
Social or cultural factors Readings

61. To what extent is one cognitive process reliable?
We are discussing memory
Remember reconstructive memory?
HW: Read article, Summarize and respond
( to Raj)
Read War of the Ghosts
Read Loftus and Palmer (1974)
Read Wright (2001) and ORB
Subsequent experiments carried out by Loftus and colleagues (1975) The document below outlines 4. Any one of them can also be used to indicate the level of reliability of Loftus and Palmer's original findings
Essay on cognitive process and eyewitness testimony (reconstructive memory)

62. Discuss the use of technology in investigating cognitive processes.
Read “Use of modern technology to investigate…”
Handout: HM
Actual analysis
Read “How have fMRI studies changed theories about language and the brain?”

63. To what extent do cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion?
“We have to put emotion back into the brain and integrate it with cognitive systems. We shouldn't study emotion or cognition in isolation, but should study both as aspects of the mind in its brain.”
Read “Cognition and Emotion”
Biological factors:
Understand fight or flight response
Summarize LeDoux (1999)
Cognitive factors:
In groups, summarize one of the theories below Your presentation should: summarize specific aspects of the theory
specifically point out how cognition and biology interact in the production of emotion
provide specific evidence of findings that illustrate the aspects of the theory
Lazarus
Ekman
Tying them both together (cognition, biology, and emotion)
“Studying fears”

64. Stress: The Fight or Flight Response
What is the fight or flight response?
The flight or fight response, also called the "acute stress response" was first described by Walter Cannon in the 1920s as a theory that animals react to threats with a general discharge of the sympathetic nervous system. The response was later recognized as the first stage of a general adaptation syndrome that regulates stress responses among vertebrates and other organisms.
The onset of a stress response is associated with specific physiological actions in the sympathetic nervous system, primarily caused by release of adrenaline and norepinephrine from the medulla of the adrenal glands. The release is triggered by acetylcholine released from preganglionic sympathetic nerves. These catecholamine hormones facilitate immediate physical reactions by triggering increases in heart rate and breathing, constricting blood vessels and tightening muscles. An abundance of catecholamines at neuroreceptor sites facilitates reliance on spontaneous or intuitive behaviors often related to combat or escape.
Normally, when a person is in a serene, unstimulated state, the "firing" of neurons in the locus ceruleus is minimal. A novel stimulus, once perceived, is relayed from the sensory cortex of the brain through the thalamus to the brain stem. That route of signaling increases the rate of noradrenergic activity in the locus ceruleus, and the person becomes alert and attentive to the environment.
If a stimulus is perceived as a threat, a more intense and prolonged discharge of the locus ceruleus activates the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system (Thase & Howland, 1995). The activation of the sympathetic nervous system leads to the release of norepinephrine from nerve endings acting on the heart, blood vessels, respiratory centers, and other sites. The ensuing physiological changes constitute a major part of the acute stress response. The other major player in the acute stress response is the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis.

65. Evaluate one theory of how emotion may affect one cognitive process
Flashbulb memory