1. Social stratification
Fernando R. Pedrosa, Ph.D.
Prof.-in-charge

2. Social Stratification
Meaning and Nature
Refers to the ranking of individuals and groups in any given society.
It is a basic component of social organization.
It is found in all human groups.
This is transmitted from one generation to another.

3. The families are ranked as a whole, so that their positions in the hierarchy are significant in delimiting the range of resources and opportunities available to the members.
It is also the hierarchical arrangement and establishment of social categories that may evolve into social groups as well as statuses and their corresponding roles.

4. Social stratification may be viewed as a:
1. Social structure
2. Social process
3. Social problem

5. Social structure
- may be viewed as the differentiation of
statuses and social roles into ranked
orders.
- this is sometimes termed by sociologists
as “institutionalized inequality.”

6. Social Process
- it may be viewed as the splitting up of society into social categories that develop into social groups cooperating, competing, conflicting – for the status quo or social change.

7. Social Problem
- it involves bitter feelings of discontent
and of strong demands for equality or
“social justice.”

8. Basic Concepts of Inequality
Stratification theorists use inequality to refer to the situation in which the economic goods in a society are distributed unevenly among different groups or categories of people. They argue that economic inequality produces or leads to other forms of inequality in society, and that these patterns of inequality, in turn, lead to economic inequality.

9. Macro concept of Social Stratification
Attribution
Stereotype
Self-fulfilling prophecy
Social comparisons
A fair world
Just world

10. Social Stratification Systems
Differentiation
- refers to how things or people can be
distinguished from one another.
- people may be differentiated on the basis
of the colors of their skin, color of hair,
and the like.
Stratification
- refers to the ranking of things or people.

11. Dimensions of Stratification
Wealth and income
- the income of any family depends on what
its members earn and what they own.
- what people own is called “wealth, and is
often inherited; this consists of the value of
everything a person or group owns.
- income refers to how much people get; it is
the amount of money one person or group
receives.

12. return on labor; interest, dividend, and rent as a return on property.
- economists view wages and salaries as a
return on labor; interest, dividend, and
rent as a return on property.
- both income and wealth are distributed
unevenly in our society, but to a different
degree.

13. Inequalities of power
- power is the ability to control one’s own life
(personal power) and control or influence
the actions of others (social power).
- power is a fundamental and inherent
element in all human interaction at every
social level.
- this can be used for constructive or selfish
ends.

14. Inequalities of prestige
- prestige of individuals and groups may be
defined as the social recognition that a
person or group receives from others.
- it can be influenced in a number of ways.
- it refers to the “esteem, respect, or
approval that is granted by an individual
or a collectivity for performance or
qualities they consider above the average.

15. worth and respect, a feeling that somehow
- prestige provides people with a sense of
worth and respect, a feeling that somehow
they are accepted and values by others.

16. Types of Stratification
Open system
- also known as class system.
- it has few impediments to social mobility.
Close system
- also known as caste system.
- status is ascribed, and determined by
people at birth and people are locked into
their parents’ social position.

17. Typical of Class System
Upper class
Upper middle class
Lower middle class
Working class
Lower class

18. Upper class – have great wealth, often going
back for many generations.
1) Old rich – ascribed status through
inheritance.
2) Noveau rich – newly-acquired wealth.
Recognized by others by reputation and lifestyle.
Have high prestige, and often have an influence on the society’s basic economic and political structure.

19. Upper-middle class – made up of successful business and professional people and their families.
- have college education, own property, and
have money savings.
- live in comfortable homes in more
exclusive areas of a community.

20. Lower-middle class – usually high school or vocational education graduates with modest incomes; they are the lesser professionals, clerical and sales workers, and upper-level manual laborers.
- emphasize respectability and security;
- have savings, and are politically and
economically conservative.

21. Working class – made up of factory workers and other blue-collar workers.
- are people who keep the country’s
machinery going.
- are assembly –line workers, auto
mechanics, and repair personnel.
- live adequately but with little left over for
luxuries.
- many of them have not finished high
school.

22. Lower class – are people at the bottom of the economic ladder.
- have little education or occupational skills and are
consequently either unemployed or underemployed.
- have many problems, including broken homes,
illegitimacy, criminal involvement, alcoholism, drug-
pushing/addiction, gambling, etc.
- have little knowledge of world events, are not involved
with their communities.
- due to a variety of personal and economic problems,
they often have no way of improving their lot in life.
- for them life is a matter of surviving from one day to
the next.

23. Indicators of Social Mobility
Power
Prestige
- esteem
- honor
3. Wealth

24. Social Mobility
This refers to the movement of an individual or a group within a stratification system that changes the individual’s or group’s status in society.

25. Types of Social Mobility
Upward mobility
Downward mobility
Horizontal mobility

26. Geographic Migration Known to sociologists as physical mobility.
It is the movement of people from one geographical spot to another, and it is a phenomenon of increasing frequency in modern society.

27. Types of Geographical Migration
Voluntary migration
Forced migration

28. Reasons for Voluntary Migration
Economic factor
Political reason
Religious liberty
Educational opportunities
Natural calamities

29. Effects of Migration Diffusion of cultures Biological mixture
Urbanization of the culture

30. Role Mobility Shifting from role to role called role mobility
Factors affecting social mobility:
1. Hard work
2. Social structure
3. Societal values and norms
4. Level of education
5. Marriage
6. Luck

31. Mobility and Social Personality
Higher social status is the result of personal achievement.
Since each person has a key role, this is usually the one in which he/she does the most to achieve status, but all the groups and roles are possible avenues of mobility.
For example, a woman may move upward, by marriage, into a higher class or by competence in her profession; a man may rise into higher social status through his political or educational career.

32. But, in many instances, striving for higher status is often accompanied by certain strains and frustrations.
This is so because in some societies, it is not always true that mobility and efficiency are rewarded with higher prestige.
- Another source of frustration occurs when the individual does not simply have the competence to achieve higher status even though he may have a desire and drive for it and social pressure for upward mobility may be very strong. The demands may be very strong and the expectations of group life are often too much for the individual.

33. For Fichter, “the attempt to achieve higher status in competitive groups sometimes results in an unbalanced social personality.” This occurs when the key role, the main instrument of higher prestige in any individual, is emphasized at the expense of the other social roles.
It must be noted that downward social mobility also carried its own social and personal costs. People who are left behind in the competitive struggle for social status, or who slip to lower class, suffer strains, frustrations, and disappointments. If this happens in adulthood, the person finds adaptation and readjustment to his new position very difficult.

34. Education and Social Mobility
The amount of education a person has, constitute one of the most important criteria of social status, and this is basically in agreement with the facts of social mobility. In almost all societies, educational attainments are rising.
Those who receive higher education may also use it as a stepping stone to higher social status.

35. Social Mobility and Success
Success in life is always attached to upward social mobility.
The high value placed upon activity, success, and quantity will enable one to understand why success is related to social mobility.

36. RACE, ETHNICITY, and GENDER

37. Race Meaning and nature
- is a socially constructed category composed of people who share biologically transmitted traits that members of society consider important.

38. Race likewise refers to physical characteristics transmitted at birth to a group of people.
This is manifested in the shape of the head and face, the shape and color of the eyes, the shape of the nose, lips, and ears, the texture and color of hair, the skin color, height, blood type and other characteristics.

39. Ethnicity
This refers to a group of people with common cultural background.
The theory of the “definition of the situation” in ethnic group relations implies that, what is important is not the physical characteristics that identify a group but how such relationship determine the feeling of belonging to each other.

40. Racial distinctions become meaningful because we attach meaning to them, and the consequences vary from prejudice and discrimination to slavery and genocide.

41. Some people believe that racial differences are real and important, and behave accordingly, therefore, those differences become real and important.

42. Gender
This refers to either the masculinity or femininity of the individual.
This pertains more to the psycho-social-cultural distinction/differences between the male and the female.
Sex is the biological distinction between a male and a female.

43. Problems in Race and Ethnic Relations
Prejudice
Discrimination
Causes of Prejudice
Stereotyping
Ethnocentrism
Scapegoating
Authoritarian personality

44. Minority Group
Refers to groups subordinated in terms of power and privilege to the majority of dominant group.
In many countries, being superior in number does not guarantee a group control over its destiny and assure it of majority status. (pls. refer to Palispis, 184)

45. Types of Minority Groups
Racial groups
- refer to those minorities, and corresponding majorities who are classified according to obvious physical differences. The obvious physical differences may refer to hair color, color of the skin, shape of earlobe, etc.

46. Ethnic Groups
- these are minority groups who are designated by their ethnicity based on cultural differences such as language, attitudes toward marriage and parenting, food habits, and other.
- these groups are set apart from others because of their national origin or distinctive cultural patterns.

47. Religious Groups
- refer to association with a religion other than the dominant faith. In this, religion is meant to include a sacred literature and ritual, institutional and cultist practices, and essential beliefs and philosophy.

48. - In connection with this, the following terms have to be understood:
Ecclesia – dominant church/religion in a society.
Sect – a breakaway group from the ecclesia, ex. Protestantism of Martin Luther, Aglipayanism of Gregorio Aglipay, Anglicanism of King Henry VIII, etc. (n.b. the breaking away is known as “schism”)
Denomination – once the sect grows in number it eventually becomes a denomination; this refers to a religious group that tends to limit its membership to a particular class, ethnic group, or religious group, or at least to have its leadership position dominated by members of such a group.

49. Cult – a religious group that usually introduces totally new religious ideas and principles.
- usually have charismatic leaders who expect a total commitment from the cult members, who are usually motivated by an intense sense of mission.
- members must give up individual autonomy and decision-making.

50. 5. Occult – also known as magic and faith healing.
- although majority of the country has been Christianized, there are still people, even in the urban areas, who depend on the occult as a means of obtaining inner peace or solving personal problems.
- is derived from the Latin word “occultus” which means mysterious things and practices related to supernatural forces beyond the five senses.
- included under this are practices and beliefs in astrology, magic, witchcraft, numerology, crystal ball gazing, spiritism and fortune telling.

51. Prejudice An emotional bias;
An irrationally based negative or occasionally positive, attitude toward certain groups and their members;
Has certain functions:
1. promotes feeling of “we-ness” of being part of an
in-group;
2. helps define the boundaries of the group; i.e. the
feeling of being “special” or superior;

52. Discrimination
While prejudice is a subjective feeling, discrimination is an overt action.
May be defined as different treatment, usually unequal and injurious, accorded to individuals who are assumed to belong to a particular category or group.

53. Causes of Prejudice Stereotyping
- the tendency to picture all members of a group in an oversimplified or exaggerated manner.
- process by which all members of a particular category as having the same qualities.

54. Scapegoating
- the need to find someone or something
else to blame for our troubles.
- racial minorities have been frequently
scapegoats in our society.

55. Authoritarian personality
Some members of a majority group manifest this by bullying inferiors.
Is not solely confined to “fascism” but also in political extremists of any ideology.

56. Patterns of Racial and Ethnic Integroup Relations
Relations between racial and ethnic groups that are part of a single group range from being friendly to murderous.
Pluralism
- ethnic or racial or ethnic groups maintain their distinctiveness but treat one another with respect.

57. Assimilation
- this occurs when a minority group becomes integrated into the dominant
society.
Cultural Assimilation
- is the adoption of the dominant group’s culture and traditions.

58. Structural Assimilation
- refers to the admission to major businesses and professions, while primary assimilation refers to acceptance into private clubs, friendships, cliques, and family through intermarriages.

59. Amalgamation
- Intermarriages among people from different ethnic groups.

60. Pluralism
Cultural pluralism may not be always be that easy, desirable and peaceful because there may be serious problems/issues that may be encountered, such as:
- Ethnic struggle
- Genocide
- Slavery
- Subjugation
- Segregation
- Expulsion
- Annihilation
- Apartheid

61. ETHNIC STRUGGLE
This occurs when two or more groups in a society vie for power and privilege.
This is mostly to develop when a society is split into two main ethnic or racial groups.

62. GENOCIDE
This is considered the “ultimate solution” to intergroup conflict – the mass murder of an ethnic or racial group.
The best known example of this is Nazi Germany’s systematic “extermination” of more than 6 million Jews,

63. SLAVERY
Refers to the treatment of a group of people as property, rather than as persons.
Slaves may be acquired through war, conquest, or trade.
This is most likely to develop where there is a large supply of arable but unused land, and labor is scarce.

64. SUBJUGATION
This refers to the control of one group and the assumption of a position of authority, power, and domination by the other.
The members of the subordinate groups may accept their lower status for a time, and even devise indigenous rationalizations for it.

65. SEGREGATION This is actually a form of subjugation.
This refers to the act, process, or state of being set apart.
It is a situation that places limits and restrictions on the contact, communication, and social relations among groups.
In a way, this is a form of ostracism imposed on a minority by a dominant group.
There are some groups that prefer to retain their ethnicity like the Chinese, in which case segregation remains voluntary.

66. EXPULSION
The process of forcing a group to leave the territory where it resides.
Can be made indirectly by making life in the area very miserable, forcing the people to vacate the area.
May done directly through forced migration.
Is an extreme attempt to eliminate a certain minority from an area.
Is the most extreme action one can take against another.

67. ANNIHILATION
This refers to the deliberate practice of trying to exterminate a racial or ethnic group.
Has also been referred to as genocide, a word coined to describe the crimes committed by the Nazis during WW II.
Is the denial of the right to live of an entire group of people.

68. APARTHEID (SOUTH AFRICA)
This has roots in slavery.
Means “separate development” according to the language of Afrikaners, the descendants of Dutch settlers who emigrated to Southern Africa in the 17th century.
Its central focus is racial separation.
Is a philosophy of white supremacy grounded in Africaner history and religion.

69. Minority Group Responses
Accomodation
Reform
Separatism or nationalism
Rebellion and revolution

70. Other Minority Responses
Avoidance
Acceptance
Assimilation into the majority
Aggression

71. Gender Stratification
Refers to personal traits and social positions that members of a society attach to being male or female.
It is a dimension of social organization, shaping how we interact with others and how we think of ourselves.
Involves hierarchy or ranking men and women seen thoroughly different from each other in terms of power, wealth, and other resources.
Refers to the unequal distribution of wealth, power, and prestige between men and women.

72. Patriarchy Literally means “rule of the father.”
Is a form of social organization in which males dominates females.
The opposite of this is contained in mythical tales about societies dominated by females known as “amazons”

73. Sexism Is the belief that one sex is innately superior than the other.
Is the ideological basis of patriarchy.
Is built into the institution of society known as institutional sexism being a part of the economy.
In some countries, women in general are concentrated in low-paying jobs.

74. Sexualism
The focus is not on the job/profession/sports but on the private parts of the individual, sensationalizing them (sex organs) or focusing so much on them through publication, etc.

75. It is the belief that women and men have biological different capacities and that these differences are from a legitimate basis for unequal treatment.
This is said to be a part of the general strategy of stratification, which compels one to exclude others on the basis of category membership as sex and race.
It is likewise a means of restricting access to scarce resources.

76. Sexual harassment
This is a special form of discrimination that is especially problematic for female workers and students.
This may mean unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other unwanted verbal or physical conduct of sexual nature.
This is different from the legal concept of act of lasciviousness.

77. SOCIAL CHANGE

78. Change occurs everywhere.
This is a phenomenon that characterizes the world in which we live.
All of us are, therefore, a part of an ever changing world.
Some of these many aspects of change in our social world are changes in our institutions, changes in material culture, cultural diffusion, and changes in our population.

79. Social change has been defined as the alteration of patterns of social organization, structure, institutions, and intergroup or intragroup behaviors over time.
This is pervasive in all societies and affects all individuals, in one way or another.
It is also pervasive in culture, society, and personality.

80. Culture Change and its Elements
- Culture refers to all alterations/modifications affecting new traits or trait complexes and to changes in a culture content and structure.
Culture change involves the following elements:
1. development of oral and written language and
other means of communication;
2. modification of technology;
3. shifts in economic principles;

81. 5. variations in musical styles and in other art forms;
4. historical evolution of religious thought and
political ideology.
5. variations in musical styles and in other art
forms;
6. transition in scientific theory;
7. alterations in the forms and rules of social
organization.

82. Technological Change & Social Change
These are specific parts of cultural change.
Technological change denotes revisions that occur in man’s application of his technical knowledge and skills as he adopts himself to his big environment.

83. This change may be evident in the following:
1. increasing differentiation in the forms of tools
and implements used by man;
2. constant additions to and deletions from the
range of inventions;
3. gradual increase in scientific knowledge;
4. resulting ability to utilize and exploit the natural
environment for man’s needs.

84. Social change refers to the variations or modifications in the patterns of social organizations of subgroups within a society, or of the entire society itself.
This may be manifested in the rise and fall of small groups, communities, or institutional structures and functions, or changes in the statuses, the roles of members of the family, work setting, church, government, school, and other subsystems of the social organization.

85. Internal Sources of Social Change
Innovations
- occur when people acquire new ideas and
change the way they do something. Examples:
a) new technology
b) new culture
c) new social structures (inventions)

86. 2. Conflicts - much change is produced by conflicts among groups within a society that may have resulted positive effects.

87. 3. Growth - in any society, population has become a major engine driving modern social change. - large populations present new problems that demand new modes of social organization. For ex., small populations may allow direct participation in decision-making.

88. - people in advanced industrial societies are
4. New ideas
- people in advanced industrial societies are
experiencing a shift in values that involves a
new definition of progress.
- highly developed countries are moving into
an era of post materialism.
- our present emphasis on consumption of
goods and services is giving way to an
emphasis on the quality of human life.

89. - direct or indirect contact between members
5. Diffusion
- direct or indirect contact between members
of two different cultures often leads to change
in one or both cultures.
- This process by which this change comes
about is diffusion, because it entails a gradual
dissemination of cultural traits.

90. Theories of Social Change
Evolutionary theory – characterized primarily by an assumption of smooth, cumulative change, often in a linear fashion, and always in the direction of increasing complexity and adaptability.

91. Equilibrium theory – characterized by the concept of homeostasis, and focuses on conditions tending toward stability as a consequence.

92. Conflict theory – characterized by the assumption that change is endemic to all social organizations, and focuses on conditions that tend toward instability as a consequence.

93. Rise and Fall theory – characterized by the assumption that societies, cultures, or civilization regress as well as grow, and that all societies do not move in the same direction.

94. Factors in Social Change
Multiple factors underlie the broad and complex nature of social change.

95. Display:
- rate
- direction
- form
- type
- cause
- order
- stimulants
- barriers in its emergence, development, and
decline

96. Rate – referred to as speed of pace.
* All cultures change but the rates of change
vary. Some societies change slowly while
others rapidly.
* Some change rapidly for a time and then
slows down, and vice versa for others.

97. Forms of Social Change – this means that social change may or may not repeated over definite periods of time.
- The characteristics of social change are indicated by the term “form,” which are two:
1. Cyclical – in which cultures or their parts are
repeated over a considerable period of time.
2. Linear – in which cultures or their specific
aspects change in only one direction and never
recur.

98. In reality, no culture is precisely cyclical or linear
In reality, no culture is precisely cyclical or linear. What is possible to determine is whether the changes in the overall culture or its elements more closely approximate the linear or the cyclical form.
Changes in population size bring about changes in sex ratio, courtship, and organization. Periods of continuing population growth can enhance delayed marriage or limited childbearing.
Scarce economic resources and keen competition in the employment arena may render marriage impractical, with individuals shrinking from family responsibility and encourage single-blessedness.

99. Direction of Social Change – closely associated with rate and form is the direction of social change.
- The three are measured according to the objectives that a person or a group wishes to achieve on a long or short-range basis.
- The rapidity or slowness of social change can be defined in accordance with a tentative schedule set for the attainment of specific objectives, but which could contribute toward the fulfillment of a general goal.

100. Tecnicways – means people develop individual and group customs.
* People reorienting themselves to assemble at designated places for jeep and bus stops, or to line up to pay the cashier or to use computers, etc., illustrate the formation of tecnicways.

101. When the different elements of culture catch up with one another and maintain a balance among themselves for a certain period, then culture lag fades out.

102. Modernization
Many societies today are involved in the process of modernization, or change toward the type of society found in the urbanizing and industrialized nations.
This affects politics, social forms, and even individual psychology.

103. Many social scientists of today are interested in the patterns of modernization – whether there is a trend toward:
1. Convergence – greater similarity among nations
in their institutions;
2. Divergence – greater differences among them,
and what effect the position of a nation in the
world economy has on its modernization effect.
(world’s system theory)

104. COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOR and SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

105. Collective behavior
- is spontaneous, unstructured, and temporary action by a large number of people who interact with one another or respond to a common stimulus.

106. Types of Collective Behavior
Mass hysteria – involves uncontrollable emotional reactions to anxiety within a group.
Panics – are actions caused by sudden overwhelming need to escape from danger.

107. Crazes – involves an intense desire to have something that everyone else appears to be enjoying.
Fads – is a short-lived but widely copied outburst of unexpected and often playful behavior.
Fashions – are more enduring, widespread, and socially significant than crazes and fads. What is “in” is defined by trendsetters. It is the network of influence that carry the message.

108. Rumors – are unverified items of information.
- usually come from anonymous sources passed on quickly from one person to another.
- these may or may not be correct.
- some of these may are intentionally originated.

109. Urban Legends – are items of modern folklore involving rumors that resonate to deeply held fears and anxieties regarding aspects of modern life beyond personal control.
Example of this is a story about certain products that carry satanic symbols, or the missing lady sold into white slavery or prostitution, or the rumors about missing children killed, and whose blood is mixed with concrete to strengthen foundation of public construction of dams, bridges, and others.

110. Publics or Mass Audience – is a large number of people who share a common sentiment on some issues.
- are more organized than masses.
- have a common attitude toward a particular topic,
idea or individual.
- also exercise more critical judgment than masses.
Example, the public opposing death penalty or
reproductive health bill, etc. Members of a public
adopt a specific position on a given issue.

111. Public Opinion – is the actual attitude or position on an issue that is held by the members of a public.
- it is a collective response to an issue.
- originates from direct interaction with others and from
information gathered from the mass media.
- is related to a specific situation; because of this, public
opinion changes as social conditions change.

112. Censorship – refers to the restriction of information; it can manipulate public opinion.
- This happens in many societies.
- The government may deny people information that
is harmful to a position it supports thereby
reducing the possibility that public s may oppose
the government interests.

113. Propaganda – refers to the deliberate and calculated presentation of distorted, one-sided and selective information to the public in order to change its opinion in desired way.

114. Seven Methods used in Swaying Public Opinion
Name calling – giving something a negative label; is intended to make the audience reject an idea, person, or a product without analyzing it.
Glittering generality – the opposite of name calling; an idea or a product may be associated with a general ambiguous, but extremely popular concept or belief.
Transfer – means associating an idea or a product with something else that is widely respected, admired, or desired.

115. Testimonial – involves a famous person who endorses or opposes some idea or product.
Plain folks – means identifying the propaganda with the average person; ex. Erap ,para sa mahihirap, seen with the squatters of Tondo, and eating with them.
Card stacking – a method in which one fact or falsehoold supporting a point of view is piled on top of another; ex. a new product is always presented as the best, or better than the products of its kind.

116. Bandwagon – means creating the impression that everyone is using a product or supporting an idea of a person. For ex., political candidates are always quick in announcing poll results, or results of survey in their favor.
Interest groups – an organized public can become an interest group when people on one side of an issue feel strongly enough to move beyond letter writing and to seek out others with similar feelings; these can be easily facilitated at present with the use of texting messages, etc.

117. Crowd
Is a relatively large and temporary gathering of people in one place who have a purpose and who are aware of each other.

118. Types of Crowds
Casual crowd – an accidental gathering of people who are following individual goals in the same place at the same time (ex. travelers).
Expressive crowd – is drawn together by a promise of personal gratification for its members through active participation in activities and events.
Conventional crowd – a gathering in which people’s behavior conforms to well-established set of cultural norms and in which people’s gratification results form a more passive appreciation of an event than it does in an expressive crowd.

119. Social Movements
Are sets of attitudes and self-conscious actions by people to change society; involve large numbers of people mobilized to promote or resist social and cultural change; usually these are in favor of institutional or societal change.

120. Types of Social Movements
Alternative movements – are those that aim to achieve some limited but specific change in individuals.
Redemptive movements – focus on individuals; seek total, not partial, change.
Reformative movements – seek change in society, not individuals.

121. Transformative movements – aim to bring about total change in the social order.
Revolutionary movements – strategy and tactics adopted by various social movements depend on their goals.
Good luck! All the best!!!
Prof. Nandy R. Pedrosa, Ph.D.
Oct. 7, 2010