1. Three Stages of Memory

2. Stage Model of Memory Long-term memory Working or Short-term Memory
Sensory
Input
Attention
Encoding
Retrieval
Maintenance Rehearsal

3. Three Stages of Memory Three memory stages that differ in…
Capacity – How much info can be stored
Duration – How long the info can be stored
Function – what is done with the stored info capacity and duration.
Information is transferred from one stage to another
Long-term
memory
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Attention
Encoding
Retrieval
Maintenance Rehearsal
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; short-term memory; working memory; long-term memory; attention; encoding; maintenance rehearsal; retrieval

4. Sensory Memory
Function—holds information long enough to be processed for basic physical characteristics
Capacity—large
can hold many items at once
Duration—very brief retention of images
.3 sec for visual info
2 sec for auditory info
Sensory
Input
Memory
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory

5. Sensory Memory
Sensory memory forms automatically, without attention or interpretation
Attention is needed to transfer information to working memory othewise info is lost/forgotten
Remember Neisser’s Selective Attention Test counting basketball passes?
Sensory
Input
Memory
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; attention

6. Sensory Memory Divided into two types:
iconic memory–visual information
echoic memory– auditory information
Sensory
Input
Memory
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; iconic memory; echoic memory; Sperling

7. Types of Sensory Memory
Iconic Memory or Visual sensory memory—brief memory (.3 second) of an image or icon.
George Sperling studied iconic memory (try his experiment yourself with a link on our website)
Echoic Memory or Auditory sensory memory—brief memory of a sound or echo.
Auditory sensory memories may last a bit longer than visual sensory memories (2 seconds)

8. Sperling’s Iconic Memory Experiment
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; iconic memory; Sperling
Notes:
Slides 7-10 present the protocols for the Sperling task in a more schematic manner. Slides 5-6 present the same protocol in a more text oriented fashion.

9. Sperling’s Iconic Memory Experiment
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; iconic memory; Sperling
Notes:
Slides 7-10 present the protocols for the Sperling task in a more schematic manner. Slides 5-6 present the same protocol in a more text oriented fashion.

10. Sperling’s Iconic Memory Experiment
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; iconic memory; Sperling
Notes:
Slides 7-10 present the protocols for the Sperling task in a more schematic manner. Slides 5-6 present the same protocol in a more text oriented fashion.

11. Sperling’s Iconic Memory Experiment
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; iconic memory; Sperling
Notes:
Slides 7-10 present the protocols for the Sperling task in a more schematic manner. Slides 5-6 present the same protocol in a more text oriented fashion.

12. Sperling’s Experiment
Presented matrix of letters for 1/20 of a second
Report as many letters as possible
Subjects recall only half of the letters
Was this because subjects didn’t have enough time to view entire matrix? No
How did Sperling know this?
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; iconic memory; Sperling
Note: This slide and the next slide present the basic protocol for Sperling's task - mainly in text form. For instructors who prefer a more visual representation, slides 7-10 present the same protocols in a more schematic manner.

13. Sperling’s Experiment
Sperling showed people can see and recall ALL the letters momentarily
Sounded low, medium or high tone immediately after matrix disappeared
tone signaled 1 row to report
recall was almost perfect
High
Medium
Low
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; iconic memory; Sperling
Notes:
This slide and the previous slide present the basic protocol for Sperling's task - mainly in text form. For instructors who prefer a more visual representation, slides 7-10 present the same protocols in a more schematic manner.
Not an afterimage because Sperling showed he could present the letters to one eye and influence the memory by presenting a bright flash to the other eye. This would not have worked if the visual information was stored on the retina.
Memory for image fades after 1-3 seconds or so, making report of entire display hard to do

14. Short Term or Working Memory
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Attention
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; attention; working memory; short-term memory

15. Working Memory Store Function - conscious processing of information
where information is actively worked on
Capacity - limited (holds 7 +/- 2 items)
Duration - brief storage (about 30 seconds)
Code - often based on sound or speech even with visual inputs
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; short-term memory; working memory; attention; memory span; 7 +/- 2 items
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Attention

16. Working Memory Store
What happens if you need to keep information in working memory longer than 30 seconds?
To demonstrate, memorize the following phone number (presented one digit at a time)... 8 5 7 9 1 6 3
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; short-term memory; working memory
Notes:
This demonstration will present one number at a time, spaced one second apart. After the first two lines of text appear, hit enter once to start the number sequence. The remaining number will appear automatically. You do not need to hit again enter once the first number appears.

17. 857-9163 Working Memory Store What is the number?
The number lasted in your working memory longer than 30 seconds
So, how were you able to remember the number?
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; short-term memory; working memory

18. Maintenance Rehearsal
Mental or verbal repetition of information
Allows information to remain in working memory longer than the usual 30 seconds
Maintenance rehearsal
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; short-term memory; working memory; attention; maintenance rehearsal
Sensory
Memory
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Attention
Sensory
Input

19. Maintenance Rehearsal
What happens if you can’t use maintenance rehearsal?
Memory decays quickly
To demonstrate, again memorize a phone number (presented one digit at a time)
BUT, have to count backwards from 1,000 by sevens (i.e., 1014, 1007, 1000 … etc.)
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; short-term memory; working memory; maintenance rehearsal
Notes:
This demonstration represents what occurs if students do not have the opportunity to rehearse the information. First, the sequence of numbers will appear. (Important note: instruct students before the number sequence begins that as soon as the final number is presented, they should immediately start counting backwards by seven from 1000). The slide will present one number at a time, spaced one second apart. After the first five lines of text appear, hit enter once to start the number sequence. The remaining numbers will appear automatically. You do not need to hit again enter once the first number appears. 6 2 8 5 9 4

20. 628-5094 Working Memory Store What is the number?
Without rehearsal, memory fades
Peterson’s STM Task
Test of memory for 3-letter nonsense syllables
Participants count backwards for a few seconds, then recall
Without rehearsal, memory fades
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; short-term memory; working memory; attention

21. Working Memory Model Baddeley (1992) 3 interacting components Central
Executive
Phonological
Loop
Visuospatial
Sketch Pad
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; short-term memory; working memory; Baddeley; central executive; phonological loop; visuospatial skectchpad

22. Working Memory Model Central Executive
Visuospatial sketch pad - holds visual and spatial info
Phonological loop - holds verbal information
Central executive - coordinates all activities of working memory; brings new information into working memory from sensory and long-term memory
Central
Executive
Phonological Loop
Visuospatial
Sketch pad
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; short-term memory; working memory; Baddeley; central executive; phonological loop; visuospatial skectchpad
Do Visuo-Spacial Sketch Pad Demo from Website Now

23. Ways to Improve STM: Chunking
Grouping small bits of information into larger units of information
expands working memory load
Which is easier to remember?
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; short-term memory; working memory; chunking
Sloth Meets Chunk

24. Long Term Memory LTM

25. Long-Term Memory
Once information passes from sensory to working memory, it can be encoded into long-term memory
Long-term
memory
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Attention
Encoding
Retrieval
Maintenance Rehearsal
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; long-term memory; working memory; short-term memory; encoding; retrieval

26. Long-Term Memory Function—organizes and stores information
more passive form of storage than working memory
Unlimited capacity
Duration—thought by some to be permanent
Long-term
memory
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Attention
Encoding
Retrieval
Maintenance Rehearsal
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; long-term memory; working memory; short-term memory; encoding; retrieval

27. Long-Term Memory
Encoding—process that controls movement from working (STM) memory to long-term memory storage (getting info in)
Retrieval—process that controls flow of information from long-term to working memory store (getting info out)
Long-term
memory
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Attention
Encoding
Retrieval
Maintenance Rehearsal
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; long-term memory; working memory; short-term memory; encoding; retrieval

28. Encoding: Automatic and Effortful Processing

29. Automatic vs. Effortful Processing
Some information, such as where you ate dinner yesterday, you process automatically.
Other information, such as this chapter's concepts, requires effort to encode and remember.

30. Automatic vs. Effortful Encoding
Automatic processing
Unconscious encoding of information
Examples:
What did you eat for lunch today?
Was the last time you studied during the day or night?
You know the meanings of these very words you are reading. Are you actively trying to process the definition of the words?

31. Automatic vs. Effortful Encoding
Effortful processing
Requires attention and conscious effort
Examples:
Memorizing your notes for your upcoming Introduction to Psychology exams
Repeating a phone number in your head until you can write it down

32. Types of Effortful Processing
Maintenance Rehearsal – go over something repeatedly till it is encoded in LTM
Elaborative Rehearsal – relate the info to info you already know.
Self-reference effect – applies info to yourself.
Visual imagery – vivid images you can remember.
Levels of Processing framework – info encoded at a deeper level will be more easily remember than info encoded at a shallow level. How can you do this? (See middle of page 246).

33. Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart's levels of processing framework
Information that is processed at a “deep” level is more likely to be encoded into long-term memory than information processed at a “shallow” passive level.
When studying for classes, actively question new information, think about its implications, and try to generate your own examples based on your experiences

34. Cerebellum Hippocampus Types of LTM Explicit W/ conscious recall
Implicit
No conscious recall
General Knowledge
(semantic memory)
Personal Events
(episodic memory)
Skills and
Procedures
(procedural memory)
Conditioning
(CC & OC)

35. Dimensions of LTM
Explicit memory—memory with awareness; information can be consciously recollected; also called declarative memory
Implicit memory—memory without awareness; memory that affects behavior but cannot consciously be recalled; also called nondeclarative memory

36. Two Types of Explicit Memory
Episodic information—information about events or “episodes”
Semantic information—information about facts, general knowledge, school work

37. Episodic Memory Memory tied to your own personal experiences Examples:
What month is your birthday?
Do you like to eat caramel apples?
Q: Why are these explicit memories?
A: Because you can actively declare your answers to these questions
Key words: long-term memory; explicit memory; declarative memory; episodic memory

38. Semantic Memory Memory not tied to personal events
General facts and definitions about the world
Examples:
How many tires on a car?
What is a cloud?
What color is a banana?
Key words: long-term memory; explicit memory; declarative memory; semantic memory

39. Semantic Memory Q: Why are these explicit memories?
A: Because you can actively declare your answers
Important note: Though you may have personal experience with these items, your ability to answer does NOT depend on tying the item to your past
i.e., Do not have to recall the time last week when you ate a banana to say that bananas are yellow
Key words: long-term memory; explicit memory; declarative memory; semantic memory

40. Clive Wearing--Living Without Memory: Introduction
Studies of malfunctions of memory have helped researchers understand how we form (encode), store, and retrieve memories. Memories are recorded successively as sensory memory (the immediate initial stage), short-term memory (or working memory), and long-term memory.
In one extreme type of memory deficit, caused by accident or disease, a person is unable to form new memories and lives in an eternal present.
Clive Wearing, a world-renowned choir director and musical arranger, suffered brain damage following viral encephalitis, which destroyed both temporal lobes, the entire hippocampus, and much of the left frontal lobe. He lost his ability to form new memories. He has no memory of anything beyond the last minute or two.

41. Clive Wearing--Living Without Memory (Newer Video)
Clive and Deborah Wearing have one of their regular encounters, thirteen years after Clive suffered brain damage. Deborah describes Clive's repeated experience of waking up for the first time, as recorded in a diary.
If you’d like to view a more recent video of Clive click HERE. (5:54)
(12:35) Segment #10 from The Mind: Psychology Teaching Modules (2nd edition).

42. Clive Wearing--Living Without Memory: Questions
Why does Wearing retains many memory-related abilities, such as speech, musical ability, and ability to recognize his wife.
What is the role of the hippocampus (totally destroyed in Wearing) in memory formation?

43. Implicit Memory Nondeclarative memory
Influences your thoughts or behavior, but does not enter consciousness
Three subtypes
Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory;

44. Subtypes of Implicit Memory
Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; procedural memory; classical conditioning; priming

45. Classical Conditioning
Studied earlier
Implicit because it is automatically retrieved
Must be stored in the cerebellum
Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; procedural memory; classical conditioning; priming

46. Procedural Memory
Memory that enables you to perform specific learned skills or habitual responses
Examples:
Riding a bike
How to speak grammatically
Tying your shoe laces
Why are these procedural memories implicit?
Can’t readily describe their contents
try describing how to tie your shoes
They are automatically retrieved when appropriate
Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; procedural memory

47. Priming Priming is influence of one memory on another
priming is implicit because it does NOT depend on awareness and is automatic
Here is a demonstration
Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming

48. Priming Demonstration
Unscramble the following words:
O R E S
L T E P A
K T A L S
TSME
L O B S O M S
ELAF
ROSE
PETAL
STALK
STEM
BLOSSOM
Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming

49. Priming Demonstration
ELAF = LEAF
Why not respond FLEA?
Because flower parts were primed (flower power)
Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming

50. Perceptual Priming
Can you identify the fragmented stimulus to the right?
Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming; perceptual priming

51. Two Types of Priming
Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming; conceptual priming; perceptual priming

52. Conceptual Priming
The semantic meaning of priming stimulus influences your encoding or retrieval
Thought to involve activation of concepts stored in semantic memory
Example: Flower power priming demonstration
Does not depend on sense modality (works across the senses): pictures can conceptually prime sounds AS THE NEXT SLIDE SHOWS
Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming; conceptual priming
DEMO CONCEPTUAL PRIMING BY SHOWING THE BUNNY ON THE NEXT SLIDE AND THEN SPEAK THE WORD “HAIR” TO THE CLASS AND ASK THEM TO SPELL IT.

53. Priming across modalities
Look at the picture . Then when the instructor says a word, write it down.
Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming; conceptual priming
DEMO: SAY THE WORD “HARE’ TO YOUR CLASS AND ASK THEM TO WRITE IT DOWN.
MANY WILL WRITE “HARE” ALTHOUGH “HAIR” IS MORE COMMON. Why is the uncommon response produced? PRIMING of a sound by a picture.

55. Perceptual Priming
Prime enhances ability to identify a test stimulus based on its physical features
Does not work across sense modalities
Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming; perceptual priming

56. Perceptual Priming
Can you identify the fragmented stimulus to the right?
Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming; perceptual priming

57. Perceptual Priming
What if you were shown the following slide earlier in the lecture?
Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming; perceptual priming

58. Perceptual Priming
Can you identify the fragmented stimulus to the right?
Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming; perceptual priming

59. How are memories organized?
Clustering - hierarchical organization
Semantic Network Model - associations
Key words: memory organization; hierarchical organization

60. Clustering: Hierarchical Organization
Related items clustered together to form categories
Related categories clustered to form higher-order categories
Remember list items better if list presented in categories
poorer recall if presented randomly
Even if list items are random, people still organize info in some logical pattern
Key words: memory organization; hierarchical organization

61. Hierarchical Organization
Hockenbury Slides (Schulman)
Key words: memory organization; hierarchical organization

62. Semantic Network Model
Mental links between concepts
common properties provide basis for mental link
Shorter path between two concepts = stronger association in memory
Activating one concept can spread and activate other associations.
Key words: memory organization; hierarchical organization; associations; spreading activation model

63. Semantic Network Model See examples at Human Cloud Brain
Red
Fire
House
Cherry
Apple
Rose
Pear
Ambulance
Engine
Truck
Bus
Car
Flower
Violet
Hot
Pot
Stove
Pan
Pie
Hockenbury Slides (Schulman) Key words: memory organization; hierarchical organization; associations; spreading activation model

64. How is Memory like a Computer?

65. Summary Modal model of memory
three memory stores (sensory, working and long-term memory)
control processes (attention, maintenance rehearsal, encoding and retrieval) govern movement of information within and between stores