Roman Gladiatorial Games 1. The Context 2. The Gladiator.

Roman Gladiatorial Games 1. The Context 2. The Gladiator

Forms of Roman Spectacles Forms of Roman Spectacles (1) Ludi Circenses: chariot-races (1) Ludi Circenses: chariot-races (2) Ludi Scaenici: plays: tragedy, comedy, mime, pantomime (2) Ludi Scaenici: plays: tragedy, comedy, mime, pantomime (3) Munera gladiatoria: gladiatorial games (3) Munera gladiatoria: gladiatorial games (4) Venationes : wild-beast hunts (4) Venationes : wild-beast hunts

Colosseum - where most munera were held

Circus Maximus – where chariot races were held

Ludi Scaenici – Theatrical Performances

The origins of Roman munera munus = duty, tribute, obligation – Not included in Ludi munus = duty, tribute, obligation – Not included in Ludi Munus mortis = duty paid to the manes (shades of the underworld or dead Roman ancestors) Munus mortis = duty paid to the manes (shades of the underworld or dead Roman ancestors) First gladiatorial combat held in 264 BCE by the sons of D. Junius Brutus in honor of their dead father (3 pairs of gladiators) First gladiatorial combat held in 264 BCE by the sons of D. Junius Brutus in honor of their dead father (3 pairs of gladiators) Held in the Forum Boarium (cattle market) Held in the Forum Boarium (cattle market) Paid for privately (editor), usually in a funerary context Paid for privately (editor), usually in a funerary context Private individuals could own troops of gladiators – trained by a lanista (gladiator trainer) Private individuals could own troops of gladiators – trained by a lanista (gladiator trainer) munera increase in frequency, organization, variety, and scale over time munera increase in frequency, organization, variety, and scale over time 216 BCE (22 pairs); 200 BCE (25 pairs); 183 BCE (60 pairs); By 65 BCE Julius Caesar planned a show of 320 pairs of gladiators but was prevented by a senatorial decree. 216 BCE (22 pairs); 200 BCE (25 pairs); 183 BCE (60 pairs); By 65 BCE Julius Caesar planned a show of 320 pairs of gladiators but was prevented by a senatorial decree. Numbers and scale a direct consequence of Roman imperial expansion Numbers and scale a direct consequence of Roman imperial expansion

The Person of the Gladiator Typically he (sometimes she) was a slave or prisoner of war or criminal condemned ad amphitheatrum Typically he (sometimes she) was a slave or prisoner of war or criminal condemned ad amphitheatrum Also included volunteers, numbers increased over time; Some were citizens, but participating as gladiators was frowned upon and stain of infamia and condemnation clung to the profession Also included volunteers, numbers increased over time; Some were citizens, but participating as gladiators was frowned upon and stain of infamia and condemnation clung to the profession Suffered from an ambivalent image - both from pollution (as an infamis) and adored like a rock star Suffered from an ambivalent image - both from pollution (as an infamis) and adored like a rock star Took an oath (sacramentum gladiatorium) to suffer to be burned, chained, beaten and killed by an iron weapon Took an oath (sacramentum gladiatorium) to suffer to be burned, chained, beaten and killed by an iron weapon A gladiator could survive and eventually gain his freedom A gladiator could survive and eventually gain his freedom

The gladiator – the most important developments Original gladiator (bustuarius) fought in munera at funerals Original gladiator (bustuarius) fought in munera at funerals By the late Republic gladiators had become professionals (many were volunteers): talented, trained, skilled specialists in variety of weapons; received contract wages or prizes won By the late Republic gladiators had become professionals (many were volunteers): talented, trained, skilled specialists in variety of weapons; received contract wages or prizes won Originally recruited from damnati (criminals, slaves, captives), Originally recruited from damnati (criminals, slaves, captives), increasingly also auctorati (paid contractees, (volunteers who took the oath) increasingly also auctorati (paid contractees, (volunteers who took the oath)

The Venatio Venatio = Wild beast (venationes) Venatio = Wild beast (venationes) Bestiarius = The beast-hunter Bestiarius = The beast-hunter Orignally had nothing to do with munera Orignally had nothing to do with munera Frequently held with munera, became regular part under Augustus Frequently held with munera, became regular part under Augustus Regular programme develops: Venatio in the morning, Execution of criminals at noon, Gladiators the actual munus followed in the afternoon Regular programme develops: Venatio in the morning, Execution of criminals at noon, Gladiators the actual munus followed in the afternoon Funded by a private editor – who had to arrange for the capture, transport, and maintenance of the animals Funded by a private editor – who had to arrange for the capture, transport, and maintenance of the animals

Venationes: purpose Often large numbers of animals slaughtered Often large numbers of animals slaughtered Associated with the conquest of Mediterranean World Associated with the conquest of Mediterranean World Display of Domination over Nature Display of Domination over Nature Savaged beasts deserved to die Savaged beasts deserved to die Ancient view of Nature as danger to civilized world: the Arena was place where civilization confronted nature in shape of beasts which represented danger to humanity Ancient view of Nature as danger to civilized world: the Arena was place where civilization confronted nature in shape of beasts which represented danger to humanity

The animials Inscriptions set up by sponsors - listing types and numbers of animals: four days of games at Beneventum starred: 4 wild cats, sixteen bears, four other dangerous animals the rest being herbivores (feris numero IIII, usis XVI, noxeis IIII et ceteris herbariis) Inscriptions set up by sponsors - listing types and numbers of animals: four days of games at Beneventum starred: 4 wild cats, sixteen bears, four other dangerous animals the rest being herbivores (feris numero IIII, usis XVI, noxeis IIII et ceteris herbariis) Other inscriptions specify “oriental” and African or Lybian beasts. Other inscriptions specify “oriental” and African or Lybian beasts.

From venator to bestiarius Originally venatores – professional hunters and animal handlers, often from Africa Originally venatores – professional hunters and animal handlers, often from Africa Shot animals from a distance, often used hunting dogs Shot animals from a distance, often used hunting dogs Later venator replaced by bestiarius (originally armed with knife or spear, condemned to fight beasts, likely to die in the process) Later venator replaced by bestiarius (originally armed with knife or spear, condemned to fight beasts, likely to die in the process) Over time some bestiarii became trained beast gladiators with a chance of survial and fame Over time some bestiarii became trained beast gladiators with a chance of survial and fame Fame for gladiator and bestiarius could be earned by skillful and entertaining performance in the arena. Fame for gladiator and bestiarius could be earned by skillful and entertaining performance in the arena.

In praise of Carpophorus, the bestiarius that which was the highest glory of thy renown, Meleager, how small a part is it of Carpophorus' - fame, a stricken boar ! He plunged his hunter's spear also in a headlong- rushing bear, the king of beasts beneath the cope of Arctic skies ; and he laid low a lion, magnificent, of bulk unknown before, one worthy of Hercules' might ; and with a far-dealt wound stretched in death a rushing pard. He won the prize of honour ; yet unbroken still was his strength (Martial, Spect. 15) that which was the highest glory of thy renown, Meleager, how small a part is it of Carpophorus' - fame, a stricken boar ! He plunged his hunter's spear also in a headlong- rushing bear, the king of beasts beneath the cope of Arctic skies ; and he laid low a lion, magnificent, of bulk unknown before, one worthy of Hercules' might ; and with a far-dealt wound stretched in death a rushing pard. He won the prize of honour ; yet unbroken still was his strength (Martial, Spect. 15)

Animal Combats – 3 rd Century CE http://www.vroma.org/images/mcmanus_images/nenning6.jpg

Animal hunts = venationes

Transformation of Roman Games From funerary honors to entertainment From funerary honors to entertainment Games came to be expected and demanded Games came to be expected and demanded Increasing variety, scale, and cruelty Increasing variety, scale, and cruelty Attempts by politicians to gain control of Games Attempts by politicians to gain control of Games

From an “Obligation” to the Dead to an “Obligation” to the People There were two things which Murena, in his campaign for the praetorship, suffered seriously from the lack of, but which were both of considerable benefit to him when he came to stand for the consulship. One was games, the expectation of which had been brought about by certain rumors and by the deliberate suggestion of his rivals for office…Both of these advantages fortune held back for him until he stood for the consulship…as for his not having put on games, a factor which had hampered Murena in his campaign for the praetorship, this deficiency had been made up for by the extremely lavish games he had put on in the course of his year as praetor…It may be that you…attach more weight to the urban vote than to that of the soldiers. But if so, you can hardly show the same contempt for the high quality of Murena’s games and the magnificence of the spectacle, since this was unquestionably of enormous help to him. Do I need to point out that the people and the ignorant masses adore games? It is hardly surprising that they do.” (Cicero, Pro Murena, A. Futrell, 2006) There were two things which Murena, in his campaign for the praetorship, suffered seriously from the lack of, but which were both of considerable benefit to him when he came to stand for the consulship. One was games, the expectation of which had been brought about by certain rumors and by the deliberate suggestion of his rivals for office…Both of these advantages fortune held back for him until he stood for the consulship…as for his not having put on games, a factor which had hampered Murena in his campaign for the praetorship, this deficiency had been made up for by the extremely lavish games he had put on in the course of his year as praetor…It may be that you…attach more weight to the urban vote than to that of the soldiers. But if so, you can hardly show the same contempt for the high quality of Murena’s games and the magnificence of the spectacle, since this was unquestionably of enormous help to him. Do I need to point out that the people and the ignorant masses adore games? It is hardly surprising that they do.” (Cicero, Pro Murena, A. Futrell, 2006)

Political Aspect of Gladiatorial shows In Republic – to put on games was obligation of aediles In Republic – to put on games was obligation of aediles Display of importance and wealth of a family Display of importance and wealth of a family 122 Gaius Gracchus put on shows for free for all Romans 122 Gaius Gracchus put on shows for free for all Romans used to attract attention and support for elections to office used to attract attention and support for elections to office

Boredom and Variety Increasing demand for games resulted: 1.Increasing frequency, 2. Increasing scale, 3.Increasing variety Increasing demand for games resulted: 1.Increasing frequency, 2. Increasing scale, 3.Increasing variety Games become all about spectacle Games become all about spectacle Events are combined and merged (Theater, Munera, Venatio, Executions, Athletics, Triumphs) Events are combined and merged (Theater, Munera, Venatio, Executions, Athletics, Triumphs) Games became celebrated outside of the regular calendar of games or outside of the funerary context Games became celebrated outside of the regular calendar of games or outside of the funerary context

Pompey’s Games of 55 BCE “To be sure, the show (if you are interested) was on the most lavish scale; but it would have been little to your taste, to judge by my own. To begin with, certain performers honored the occasion by returning to the boards, from which I thought they had honored their reputation by retiring…I need not give you further details – you know the other shows. They did not even have the sprightliness which one mostly finds in ordinary shows – one lost all sense of gaiety watching the elaborate productions…What pleasure is there in getting a Clytemnestra with six hundred mules or a Trojan horse with three thousand mixing bowls or a variegated display of cavalry and infantry equipment in some battle or other? The public gaped at all this; it would not have amused you at all…Or perhaps, having scorned the gladiators, you are sorry not to have seen the athletes! Pompey himself admits that they were a waste of time….That leaves the venationes, two every day for five days, magnificent – nobody says otherwise. But what pleasure can a cultivated man get out of seeing a weak human being torn to pieces by a powerful animal or a splendid animal transfixed by a hunting spear? Any how, if these sights are worth seeing, you have seen them often; and we spectators saw nothing new.” (Cicero, Letters to his Friends,) “To be sure, the show (if you are interested) was on the most lavish scale; but it would have been little to your taste, to judge by my own. To begin with, certain performers honored the occasion by returning to the boards, from which I thought they had honored their reputation by retiring…I need not give you further details – you know the other shows. They did not even have the sprightliness which one mostly finds in ordinary shows – one lost all sense of gaiety watching the elaborate productions…What pleasure is there in getting a Clytemnestra with six hundred mules or a Trojan horse with three thousand mixing bowls or a variegated display of cavalry and infantry equipment in some battle or other? The public gaped at all this; it would not have amused you at all…Or perhaps, having scorned the gladiators, you are sorry not to have seen the athletes! Pompey himself admits that they were a waste of time….That leaves the venationes, two every day for five days, magnificent – nobody says otherwise. But what pleasure can a cultivated man get out of seeing a weak human being torn to pieces by a powerful animal or a splendid animal transfixed by a hunting spear? Any how, if these sights are worth seeing, you have seen them often; and we spectators saw nothing new.” (Cicero, Letters to his Friends,)

Variety of Games Mock Battles - recreating historical battles Mock Battles - recreating historical battles Naumachia Mock Sea battle Naumachia Mock Sea battle Caeasar;s Games 65 BC 1 st naumachia large number of victims 4000 rowers, 2000 fighters Caeasar;s Games 65 BC 1 st naumachia large number of victims 4000 rowers, 2000 fighters

Caesar’s Naumachia (46 BCE) “[in Caesar’s quadruple triumphal celebration] There was…a naval engagement of 4,000 oarsmen, where 1,000 fighting men contended on each side.” (Appian, Civil Wars, 2.102, A. Futrell, 2006) “[in Caesar’s quadruple triumphal celebration] There was…a naval engagement of 4,000 oarsmen, where 1,000 fighting men contended on each side.” (Appian, Civil Wars, 2.102, A. Futrell, 2006) “The naval battle was fought on an artificial lake dug in the lesser Codeta, between Tyrian and Egyptian ships, with two, three, or four banks of oars, and heavily manned. Such huge numbers of visitors flocked to these shows from all directions that many of them had to sleep in tents pitched along the streets or roads, or on roof tops; and often the pressure of the crowds crushed people to death. The victims included two senators.” (Suetonius, Julius Caesar, 39, A. Futrell, 2006) “The naval battle was fought on an artificial lake dug in the lesser Codeta, between Tyrian and Egyptian ships, with two, three, or four banks of oars, and heavily manned. Such huge numbers of visitors flocked to these shows from all directions that many of them had to sleep in tents pitched along the streets or roads, or on roof tops; and often the pressure of the crowds crushed people to death. The victims included two senators.” (Suetonius, Julius Caesar, 39, A. Futrell, 2006)

Tertullian on people’s attitudes towards their “stars” “Look at their attitude to the charioteers, actors, gladiators, most loving of men, to whom men surrender their souls and women their bodies as well, for whose sake they commit the sin they blame; on one and the same account they glorify tem and they degrade and diminish them; yes, further, they openly condemn them to disgrace and civil degradation; they keep them religiously excluded from council chamber, rostrum senate, knighthood, and every other kind of office and a good many distinctions. The perversity of it! They love whom they lower; they despise whom they approve; the art they glorify, the artist they disgrace (Tertullian, De spect. 22) “Look at their attitude to the charioteers, actors, gladiators, most loving of men, to whom men surrender their souls and women their bodies as well, for whose sake they commit the sin they blame; on one and the same account they glorify tem and they degrade and diminish them; yes, further, they openly condemn them to disgrace and civil degradation; they keep them religiously excluded from council chamber, rostrum senate, knighthood, and every other kind of office and a good many distinctions. The perversity of it! They love whom they lower; they despise whom they approve; the art they glorify, the artist they disgrace (Tertullian, De spect. 22)

Change in attitudes towards the gladiator No individual gladiator named in sources prior to 3 rd century BCE No individual gladiator named in sources prior to 3 rd century BCE Later development of ‘stage names’ of star gladiators who survived several fights Later development of ‘stage names’ of star gladiators who survived several fights By 150 BC – gladiatorial training used for the military By 150 BC – gladiatorial training used for the military Gladiators used as instructors Gladiators used as instructors Army became vehicle of spreading munera to provinces and frontiers Army became vehicle of spreading munera to provinces and frontiers By 1 st century BCE – notion developed gladiators could provide military exempla for citizens (skills, discipline, courage – all traditional Roman virtues) By 1 st century BCE – notion developed gladiators could provide military exempla for citizens (skills, discipline, courage – all traditional Roman virtues)

A famous victor (3 rd century BC) “ in the public show given by the Flacci was a certain Samnite, a nasty fellow, worthy of that life and station. He was matched with Pacideianus, who was by far the best of all the gladiators since the creation of man.” “ in the public show given by the Flacci was a certain Samnite, a nasty fellow, worthy of that life and station. He was matched with Pacideianus, who was by far the best of all the gladiators since the creation of man.” Lucilius 4.2.172-5 Lucilius 4.2.172-5

The gladiator as an investment Cicero, Phil. 2.29.74: gladiators are an investment to be rewarded not wasted Cicero, Phil. 2.29.74: gladiators are an investment to be rewarded not wasted Augustus banned fights without survivors: (munera sine missione) in which winners had to fight the next man until all were dead. Augustus banned fights without survivors: (munera sine missione) in which winners had to fight the next man until all were dead. Now fights continued until one opponent admitted defeat Now fights continued until one opponent admitted defeat The specialized gladiator of the late Roman republic received different public perception - from lowest status to stardom – yet stigma of infamia remained The specialized gladiator of the late Roman republic received different public perception - from lowest status to stardom – yet stigma of infamia remained

infamia Augustan Law: Lex Aelia Sentia, AD 4 Augustan Law: Lex Aelia Sentia, AD 4 Law on manumission: freed slaves, gladiators or bestiarii took same status as subject foreigners (peregrini dediciti), men who had fought in a war against Rome, were defeated, surrendered, could never become Roman citizens or Latins, could not make a will, could not receive anything through a will Law on manumission: freed slaves, gladiators or bestiarii took same status as subject foreigners (peregrini dediciti), men who had fought in a war against Rome, were defeated, surrendered, could never become Roman citizens or Latins, could not make a will, could not receive anything through a will A Roman citizen who became an auctoarius forfeited his privileges as a citizen after his retirement A Roman citizen who became an auctoarius forfeited his privileges as a citizen after his retirement

The Imperial Gladiator Their association with emperor increased status Their association with emperor increased status Similar to high status of imperial slaves Similar to high status of imperial slaves selected for their physical strength and temperament, trained as imperial gladiators to perform in emperor’s shows selected for their physical strength and temperament, trained as imperial gladiators to perform in emperor’s shows Higher status than privately owned gladiators Higher status than privately owned gladiators Provided them with opportunity to serve Rome, rewarded at least with an honourable death, but at best with riches and freedom Provided them with opportunity to serve Rome, rewarded at least with an honourable death, but at best with riches and freedom

payment Even slave gladiators received pay for performance – like the peculium of slave Even slave gladiators received pay for performance – like the peculium of slave Could save peculium to buy his freedom, could marry, have children, could own slaves Could save peculium to buy his freedom, could marry, have children, could own slaves

Executions in the Arena Hierarchy of Execution Hierarchy of Execution Romans Citizens: died a quick death Romans Citizens: died a quick death Criminals of low status and Slaves: suffered a lingering death Criminals of low status and Slaves: suffered a lingering death Foreign Enemies = captivi also slow death Foreign Enemies = captivi also slow death Forms: Death by beasts, crucifixion, burning alive Forms: Death by beasts, crucifixion, burning alive

The Function of Ordinary Roman Sacrifice pietas – a combination of duty and affection to the gods ( also to family members, friends, patrons, etc.) pietas – a combination of duty and affection to the gods ( also to family members, friends, patrons, etc.) Sacrifice demonstrates pietas Sacrifice demonstrates pietas Sacrifice cleanses both both vitium (intended transgression) and impietas (unintended transgression) Sacrifice cleanses both both vitium (intended transgression) and impietas (unintended transgression) Pietas legitimized the right of individuals to govern; Role of magistrates: to maintain the pax deorum (peace of the gods) Pietas legitimized the right of individuals to govern; Role of magistrates: to maintain the pax deorum (peace of the gods) pietas as expressed in (expressed in public acts of sacrificial devotion) of Rome’s magistrates guaranteed the favor of the gods and therefore the welfare of the state pietas as expressed in (expressed in public acts of sacrificial devotion) of Rome’s magistrates guaranteed the favor of the gods and therefore the welfare of the state

Roman Blood Sacrifice Roman religious ritual turned on offering the blood of sacrificial victims in exchange for goodwill of the gods Roman religious ritual turned on offering the blood of sacrificial victims in exchange for goodwill of the gods Under exceptional circumstances this could include human victims - devotio Under exceptional circumstances this could include human victims - devotio devotio could be a self-sacrifice – a vow made by a commander before a campaign in return for a victory. devotio could be a self-sacrifice – a vow made by a commander before a campaign in return for a victory. Three times in the late Republic 228, 216, 113 BCE, Romans buried two Gauls and two Greeks alive in the Forum Boarium Three times in the late Republic 228, 216, 113 BCE, Romans buried two Gauls and two Greeks alive in the Forum Boarium Execution of Christian martyrs described as sacrifices Execution of Christian martyrs described as sacrifices

Roman ambivalence about devotio “why was it that, when Romans discovered that a barbarian tribe called the Bletonesii had sacrificed a human being to the gods, they sent for the leaders of the tribe, intending to punish them, but when it became clear that the tribe had acted in accordance with some native custom, they set the leaders free, though forbade the practice for the future? Yet the Romans themselves, … had buried alive two men and two women..in the ‘Forum Boarium’, two Greeks and two Gauls...Did they think it impious to sacrifice human being to the gods, but necessary to sacrifice them to the spirits? Or did they think that men who did this by tradition and custom did wrong, while they themselves acted according to the instructions of the Sibylline Books? For it is said that a young woman, a virgin called Helvia, was struck by lightning as she rode a horse, and that the horse was found lying stripped of all its trappings, and the woman herself was found stripped too - her tunic pulled up above her “why was it that, when Romans discovered that a barbarian tribe called the Bletonesii had sacrificed a human being to the gods, they sent for the leaders of the tribe, intending to punish them, but when it became clear that the tribe had acted in accordance with some native custom, they set the leaders free, though forbade the practice for the future? Yet the Romans themselves, … had buried alive two men and two women..in the ‘Forum Boarium’, two Greeks and two Gauls...Did they think it impious to sacrifice human being to the gods, but necessary to sacrifice them to the spirits? Or did they think that men who did this by tradition and custom did wrong, while they themselves acted according to the instructions of the Sibylline Books? For it is said that a young woman, a virgin called Helvia, was struck by lightning as she rode a horse, and that the horse was found lying stripped of all its trappings, and the woman herself was found stripped too - her tunic pulled up above her

devotio continued private parts as if on purpose, her shoes, rings and headdress scattered in different directions, her tongue sticking right out from her mouth. The soothsayers declared that this was a dreadful disgrace fro the virgin priestesses which would become notorious; and that some outrage would extend to the knights also. Then a barbarian slave..laid information against three Vestal Virgins, Aemilia, Licinia and Marcia..that they had all been corrupted..for a long period..sleeping with men. The women were convicted and punished, but as it was such an appalling business, it was decided that the priests should consult the Sibylline Books. They say that oracles were discovered, prophesying disaster and prescribing that two Greeks and two Gauls should be offered to strange foreign spirits, buried alive on the spot (Plutarch, Roman Questions 83). private parts as if on purpose, her shoes, rings and headdress scattered in different directions, her tongue sticking right out from her mouth. The soothsayers declared that this was a dreadful disgrace fro the virgin priestesses which would become notorious; and that some outrage would extend to the knights also. Then a barbarian slave..laid information against three Vestal Virgins, Aemilia, Licinia and Marcia..that they had all been corrupted..for a long period..sleeping with men. The women were convicted and punished, but as it was such an appalling business, it was decided that the priests should consult the Sibylline Books. They say that oracles were discovered, prophesying disaster and prescribing that two Greeks and two Gauls should be offered to strange foreign spirits, buried alive on the spot (Plutarch, Roman Questions 83).

The Martyrdom of Saturus Carthage – 250 CE “Well washed! Well washed!….He is well washed indeed who is washed in this way” (washing is part of ritual cleansing) “Well washed! Well washed!….He is well washed indeed who is washed in this way” (washing is part of ritual cleansing) Martyr tales are rife with the language of sacrificial offering Martyr tales are rife with the language of sacrificial offering Expiatory qualities of blood Expiatory qualities of blood Gladiator’s blood was likewise thought to have certain magical properties Gladiator’s blood was likewise thought to have certain magical properties

Sacrifice ad munera Gladiatorial games started as one of the highest expressions of personal pietas Gladiatorial games started as one of the highest expressions of personal pietas The magical qualities of sacrificial blood, especially human blood, cleansed the state of both vitium and impietas The magical qualities of sacrificial blood, especially human blood, cleansed the state of both vitium and impietas Because impietas could occur unnoticed, sacrificial blood had to be shed in a prophylactic way – munera helped in this function Because impietas could occur unnoticed, sacrificial blood had to be shed in a prophylactic way – munera helped in this function When ritual sacrifice no longer served a religious function (by 341 CE) munera discontinued – the fact that they had to be “de-sacralized in first place underscores their sacred qualities When ritual sacrifice no longer served a religious function (by 341 CE) munera discontinued – the fact that they had to be “de-sacralized in first place underscores their sacred qualities

The Scape-Goat Ritual ancient Greece Scape-goat = pharmakos Scape-goat = pharmakos Purification ritual - expulsion of the Pharmakos: Purification ritual - expulsion of the Pharmakos: The ritual: a man chosen for his ugliness is first feasted on figs, barley broth, cheese, then whipped out of the community with fig branches and sea onions, struck especially seven times on his genitals; in this way community is cleansed of any committed pollution known or unknown The ritual: a man chosen for his ugliness is first feasted on figs, barley broth, cheese, then whipped out of the community with fig branches and sea onions, struck especially seven times on his genitals; in this way community is cleansed of any committed pollution known or unknown

Sacrificial Victims in Rome Ordinary Gladiator Blood shed as offering to gods Blood shed as offering to gods Victim had to be willing Victim had to be willing The offering of victims was an act of pietas The offering of victims was an act of pietas Victim must stand outside of the community Victim must stand outside of the community Actual act of sacrifice presided over by a magistrate, priest, or emperor but carried out by a slave Actual act of sacrifice presided over by a magistrate, priest, or emperor but carried out by a slave Blood shed as offering to dead Blood shed as offering to dead Auctoramentum Gladiatorum Auctoramentum Gladiatorum Editor puts on games as an act of pietas Editor puts on games as an act of pietas Gladiators suffer from infamia stand outside community Gladiators suffer from infamia stand outside community Actual death of a gladiator as victim carried out by another gladiator who is likewise a slave/outsider Actual death of a gladiator as victim carried out by another gladiator who is likewise a slave/outsider

Function of Gladiatorial spectacles Not just cruelty and bloodlust Not just cruelty and bloodlust Sacrificial purpose Sacrificial purpose Important social functions in a status conscious society, displaying of social hierarchy Important social functions in a status conscious society, displaying of social hierarchy Display of boundaries between Insiders and outsiders Display of boundaries between Insiders and outsiders Display of Rome’s Power and Conquest of the Uncivilized Display of Rome’s Power and Conquest of the Uncivilized

Conclusions ambivalent image of the gladiator emerges out of his status as sacrificial victim and his status as victimarius (the one carrying out the sacrifice) ambivalent image of the gladiator emerges out of his status as sacrificial victim and his status as victimarius (the one carrying out the sacrifice) Gladiatorial games increased in scale and importance under the principate because emperors needed to legitimize their position Gladiatorial games increased in scale and importance under the principate because emperors needed to legitimize their position Political legitimacy is a function of one’s demonstrable ability to maintain the Pax Deorum Political legitimacy is a function of one’s demonstrable ability to maintain the Pax Deorum Maintaining the Pax Deorum was carried out through public displays of pietas, the highest expression of which was public sacrifice Maintaining the Pax Deorum was carried out through public displays of pietas, the highest expression of which was public sacrifice

Roman Gladiatorial Games 1. The Context 2. The Gladiator.

Similar presentations

Presentation on theme: "Roman Gladiatorial Games 1. The Context 2. The Gladiator."— Presentation transcript:

Similar presentations

About project

Feedback

Log in

Auth with social network:

Roman Gladiatorial Games 1. The Context 2. The Gladiator.

Similar presentations

Presentation on theme: "Roman Gladiatorial Games 1. The Context 2. The Gladiator."— Presentation transcript:

Similar presentations

About project

Feedback