1. Chapter 8 Motivation: Cognitive and Behavioral Theories and Techniques
Chapter 8: Cognitive and Behavioral Theories and Techniques
April 19, 2017
Chapter 8 Motivation: Cognitive and Behavioral Theories and Techniques

2. Learning Goals
Describe how people develop expectations about what will happen to them
Appreciate differences in the values people place on the results of their behavior
Understand the differences between extrinsic and intrinsic outcomes
Discuss the role of equity in human motivation and behavior

3. Learning Goals (Cont.) Use the techniques of goal setting
Describe the powerful technique of behavior modification
Discuss some international aspects of motivation

4. Chapter Overview Introduction Expectancy Theory Equity Theory
Goal Setting Theory
Behavior Modification
International Aspects of the Cognitive and Behavioral Theories of Motivation
Ethical Issues in the Cognitive and Behavioral Theories of Motivation

5. Introduction
Four motivation theories that differ from those in Chapter 7
Three use cognitive processes to explain human behavior
The fourth focuses on observable behavior, not cognitive processes

6. Introduction Cognitive theories Behavioral Theory
Expectancy Theory: describes internal processes of choice among different behaviors
Equity Theory: describes how and why people react when they feel unfairly treated
Goal Setting Theory: focuses on how to set goals for people to reach
Behavioral Theory
Behavior Modification: focuses on observable behavior, not internal psychological processes

7. Expectancy Theory Assumptions
Forces in the environment and person interact to affect behavior
People choose among different courses of action
People make choices based on preferences for outcomes of actions
Choices are rational; based on perceived value of outcomes of actions

8. Expectancy Theory (Cont.)
People have different preferences for different outcomes
Reflect on your preferences for different course grades
You will behave in a way to earn your preferred grade
You also must believe you will receive your desired grade

9. Expectancy Theory (Cont.)
Basic concepts
Expectancy
Subjective probability that a person’s action will be followed by an outcome
Ranges from 0 to 1
0 = no connection between an act and an outcome
1 = connection between the act and the outcome is certain
.50 = chance that an act will be followed by an outcome

10. Expectancy Theory (Cont.)
Basic concepts (cont.)
Two types of expectancy
Effort-performance expectancy: person’s belief that effort leads to a desired performance level (E P)
Performance-outcome expectancy: person’s belief that performance will be followed by some outcome (P O)

11. Expectancy Theory (Cont.)
Simple Expectancy Theory model
Effort
Performance
Outcomes
View as flows through a pipeline

12. Expectancy Theory (Cont.)
Basic concepts (cont.)
Valence: preference people have among outcomes
Attraction (+)
Indifference (0)
Avoidance (-)
Range: -3 to +3; shows degree of attraction or avoidance a person associates with an outcome

13. Expectancy Theory (Cont.)
Relationships between expectancies and valences
People perceive a connection between effort and desired performance level
People have different preferences for different outcomes
People also perceive a link between that performance level and an outcome

14. Expectancy Theory (Cont.)
Chapter 8: Cognitive and Behavioral Theories and Techniques
April 19, 2017
Expectancy Theory (Cont.)
Formula showing relationships
n Motivation = ƒ  (E P)i (P O)i  Vi i=1 

15. Expectancy Theory (Cont.)
Multiple outcomes are possible for behavior
Outcomes: something positively valued (a raise) or negatively valued (being fired)
Person's perception of the valence of all outcomes for a behavior decides the choice of behavior
Go toward positively valent outcomes
Avoid negatively valent outcomes
May consider several possible outcomes at once

16. Expectancy Theory (Cont.)
Expectancies and valences combine multiplicatively
Importance of a value of 0 for an expectancy or a valence
Positively valent outcome but expectancy = 0: little motivation
Indifferent to an outcome (valence = 0): not highly motivated even with expectancy = 1

17. Expectancy Theory (Cont.)
Motivation = expectancy x valence
Valence
Effort
Performance
Outcomes
Expectancy
Expectancy
Text book Figure 8.1

18. Expectancy Theory (Cont.)
Types of outcomes
Extrinsic outcomes: what people receive from someone else for their performance
Intrinsic outcomes: what people give to themselves for their performance
Types of motivation
Extrinsic motivation (“pull”)
Intrinsic motivation (“push”)

19. Expectancy Theory (Cont.)
Extrinsic outcomes
Effort
Performance
Intrinsic outcomes
Performance and different outcomes

20. Expectancy Theory (Cont.)
Extrinsic outcomes
Pay increases, promotion, supervisor's praise, quality awards, larger office space
Managers give or withhold extrinsic outcomes for employee performance
Employee controls the performance level but not directly control the outcome

21. Expectancy Theory (Cont.)
Extrinsic outcomes (cont.)
Time delay of extrinsic outcomes
Example: annual or semiannual pay increases
Can reduce motivation effect
Related to many different needs: physiological, esteem, self-actualization
Provides food and shelter
Sign of accomplishment
Gives feedback about performance

22. Expectancy Theory (Cont.)
Intrinsic outcomes
More individual control
Little time delay; increases motivation effect
Managers do not directly deliver them
Managers can provide opportunities for people to experience intrinsic outcomes.
Associated mainly with higher order needs such as self-actualization

23. Expectancy Theory (Cont.)
Blockages between effort and performance
Individual blockages
Skills and abilities: perceived and real
Task difficulty
Experience with task or problem
Can increase or decrease the effort-performance expectancy

24. Expectancy Theory (Cont.)
Blockages between effort and performance (cont.)
Organizational blockages
Resources
Training
Conflict
Organizational design
Can increase or decrease the effort-performance expectancy

25. Expectancy Theory (Cont.)
Individual blockages
Effort
Performance
Outcomes
Organizational blockages
Effect of blockages: view as flows through a pipeline

26. Expectancy Theory (Cont.)
Expanded Expectancy Theory Model
Individual blockages
Extrinsic outcomes
Effort
Performance
Intrinsic outcomes
Organizational blockages
Text book Figure 8.2

27. Equity Theory Focuses on exchange relationships
Perception of equitable or inequitable exchange
Exchange relationships: employer-employee, members of a team
Some criticism of underlying research
Discussion of elements most useful to managers
Balance the ratios of inputs to outcomes in exchange relationships

28. Equity Theory (Cont.) Inputs
Characteristics and behaviors the person brings to the exchange relationship
Training, education, age, gender, ethnicity
Level of effort and performance
Person defines the relevant or important inputs
Possible basis of conflict in employer-employee exchange

29. Equity Theory (Cont.) Outputs
What the person gets from the exchange relationship
Positive outcomes: pay, fringe benefits, competent supervision, friendly coworkers
Negative outcomes: close, controlling supervision; monotonous job
Person decides positive and negative character of outcomes

30. Equity Theory (Cont.)
Compare ratio of outcomes to inputs to perceived ratio of another person or group
Can also compare to
Similar ratios in the past
Standard of fairness
Terms
Person: individual making the comparison
Other: object of comparison

31. Equity Theory (Cont.) Equity: ratios roughly balance
Person’s perception of equal ratios
Example: performance and rewards of self and coworker

32. Equity Theory (Cont.) Inequity: unequal ratios
Negative inequity: underpayment
Positive inequity: overpayment
Amount of inequity: proportional to the size of perceived discrepancy in the ratios
Point of inequity experience is higher for positive inequity than negative inequity
Attribute some amount of overpayment to "good fortune” or
a just reward for high levels of effort in the past

33. Equity Theory (Cont.) = A state of equity Person Other Outcomes Inputs

34. Equity Theory (Cont.) < Negative inequity (“underpayment”) Person
Other
Outcomes
Inputs
Outcomes
Inputs
<

35. Equity Theory (Cont.) > Positive inequity (“overpayment”) Person
Other
Outcomes
Inputs
Outcomes
Inputs
>

36. Equity Theory (Cont.) Tension within the individual
Motivation to reduce tension
Perceived inequity
Responses
Responses to inequity

37. Equity Theory (Cont.) Responses to inequity Change inputs
Negative inequity: reduce effort or quality of work
Positive inequity: increase effort or quality of work
Change outcomes: ask for increase in pay or status symbols, such as larger office
Cognitively distort own inputs and outcomes
Negative inequity: reduce perceived importance of job
Positive inequity: increase perceived responsibility in job

38. Equity Theory (Cont.) Responses to inequity Withdrawal
Permanent: leave organization
Temporary: increased absences
Acting on other: an unfortunately violent possibility
Cognitively distort inputs and outcomes of other: overpaid; see more importance in other’s task
Change reference groups: shift comparison other to someone else

39. Equity Theory (Cont.) Equity sensitivity
Equity sensitives: react as predicted by equity theory
Benevolents: accept negative inequity
Entitleds: accept positive inequity with no feelings of guilt

40. Expectancy Theory and Equity Theory Combined
Perception of equitable outcomes
Individual blockages
Extrinsic outcomes
Effort
Performance
Satisfaction
Organizational blockages
Intrinsic outcomes

41. Guidelines Suggested by Expectancy and Equity Theory
Tie rewards to performance
Preferably tie them to performance close in time
Use valued rewards (valence)
Watch equity and fairness of reward distribution
Incentive: looks to the future
Reward: looks to the past

42. Goal Setting Theory Goal specificity: what, how much, when
“Goals that are specific, challenging, reachable, and accepted
by a person lead to higher performance than goals that are
“fuzzy,” unchallenging, not reachable, or not accepted (p. 142).”
Goal specificity: what, how much, when
Acceptance of goal important, but how one gets acceptance is not
Participation in goal setting increases information about how to reach goal

43. Goal Setting Theory (Cont.)
Performance feedback and some rewards improve performance
Goals are dynamic not static
Provide training and resources to help people reach goals

44. Behavior Modification
Differs from expectancy and equity theory because it does not use cognitive processes
Focuses only on observable behavior
Assumptions:
People go toward positive outcomes
People avoid negative outcomes

45. Behavior Modification (Cont.)
Chapter 8: Cognitive and Behavioral Theories and Techniques
April 19, 2017
Behavior Modification (Cont.)
Principles
Contingent reinforcement: consequence has strongest effect when delivered after desired behavior occurs
Immediate reinforcement: consequence has strongest effect if delivered immediately after behavior occurs
Reinforcement size: large consequences have stronger effects than small ones
Reinforcement deprivation: longer a person is deprived of a consequence, the stronger its effect on behavior

46. Behavior Modification (Cont.)
Approaches to affecting behavior
Managers try to shape behavior by applying or withdrawing consequences
Positive consequences
Negative consequences
Four approaches
Positive reinforcement
Punishment
Extinction
Negative reinforcement

47. Behavior Modification (Cont.)
Approaches to affecting behavior (cont.)
Positive reinforcement
Applies a positive event to increase the frequency or strength of desirable behavior
Example: praise, recognition, sales commissions
Increases the likelihood the person will repeat the behavior in the future

48. Behavior Modification (Cont.)
Approaches to affecting behavior (cont.)
Punishment
Applies a negative event to decrease the frequency of undesirable behavior
Reprimand
Time off without pay
Punishment stops behavior but does not change its direction

49. Behavior Modification (Cont.)
Approaches to affecting behavior (cont.)
Extinction: withdraws a positive consequence to decrease frequency of undesirable behavior
Punishment and extinction have the same target--undesirable behavior
Differ sharply in other respects
Punishment applies a negative event to a behavior; extinction withdraws a positive event
Disruptive staff member in a meeting. Encourage other staff members to not laugh at the disruptive member’s behavior.

50. Behavior Modification (Cont.)
Approaches to affecting behavior (cont.)
Negative reinforcement
Increases frequency of desirable behavior by withdrawing a negative event
Person tries to escape from or avoid a negative event
Supervisor scolds a person for being late for work. Person "escapes" from the negative event by showing up for work on time in the future.

51. Behavior Modification (Cont.)
Schedules of reinforcement
Continuous reinforcement
Apply a consequence after each behavior
Example: thanking someone each time a person does something for you
Behavior will occur at a steady high rate as long as the reinforcement continues
Behavior stops quickly in the absence of the reinforcer

52. Behavior Modification (Cont.)
Schedules of reinforcement (cont.)
Intermittent reinforcement
Apply a consequence based on time between behaviors or number of behaviors
Produce more enduring changes in behavior than continuous schedules
Four intermittent reinforcement schedules

53. Behavior Modification (Cont.)
Intermittent reinforcement schedules (cont.)
Fixed ratio
Apply a consequence after a fixed number of behaviors
Example: sales commissions
Behavioral response: high and steady; stops quickly when the consequence is withheld

54. Behavior Modification (Cont.)
Intermittent reinforcement schedules (cont.)
Variable ratio
Applies consequence after a varying number of behaviors
Example: complimenting employees for good performance, but not praising each occurrence of good performance
Behavioral response: high, steady, enduring
Uncertainty of variable ratio schedule may add to the lasting quality of behavior

55. Behavior Modification (Cont.)
Intermittent reinforcement schedules (cont.)
Fixed interval
Applies consequence after a constant time between behaviors
Example: receiving a paycheck at the end of a pay period
Behavioral response: strongest just before the consequence
A fixed interval paycheck will not have much effect on job performance
Can strongly reinforce organization membership

56. Behavior Modification (Cont.)
Intermittent reinforcement schedules (cont.)
Variable interval
Applies a consequence after different periods between behavior
Example: a manager randomly praising employee performance when warranted
Behavioral response: strong and steady
Behavior endures; not extinguished easily
Uncertainty of reinforcement may contribute to the enduring quality of the behavior

57. Behavior Modification (Cont.)
Shaping
Technique for gradually changing a person's behavior while aiming for a target behavior
Desired change in a person's behavior cannot happen in one step
Shaping moves a person's behavior toward the target a step at a time
Example: an employee needs to learn a new job or a new procedure

58. Behavior Modification (Cont.)
Shaping (cont.)
Use positive reinforcement on a continuous schedule as employee gradually learns
Treat behavior that does not move toward the target with extinction: withhold praise
Once employee reaches the target, the manager uses an intermittent reinforcement schedule
When behavior is well in place, can give reinforcement less often

59. Behavior Modification (Cont.)
Side effects of punishment
Many negative side effects
People may also perceive extinction as punishment, possibly resulting in side effects
Side effects of extinction should be less strong than those of punishment

60. Behavior Modification (Cont.)
Side effects of punishment (cont)
Punishment stops behavior temporarily
Does not cause the person to adopt desirable behavior
Undesirable behavior often returns when the source of punishment is not present
Less potent as a shaping tool than positive reinforcement

61. Behavior Modification (Cont.)
Side effects of punishment (cont.)
Emotional reactions to punishment
Anger
Hostility toward source
Sabotage of equipment and work process

62. Behavior Modification (Cont.)
Side effects of punishment (cont.)
Climate of distrust between manager and subordinates
Undermines manager's ability to shape behavior
Inflexible behavior particularly when applied in early employment period
New employee who is reprimanded after challenging a boss's decisions is unlikely to engage in that behavior later.

63. International Aspects of the Cognitive and Behavioral Theories of Motivation
Two assumptions that could restrict use of this chapter’s theories outside the U.S.
Individual controls decisions about future actions
Manager can deliberately shape the behavior of people

64. International Aspects of the Cognitive and Behavioral Theories of Motivation (Cont.)
Both assumptions reflect U.S. values of free will, individualism, individual control
Cultural contrasts
Muslim managers believe something happens mainly because God wills it to happen
Hong Kong Chinese believe luck plays a role in all events

65. International Aspects of the Cognitive and Behavioral Theories of Motivation (Cont.)
Expectancy Theory's validity in other cultures
Japanese female life insurance sales representatives responded to commission system as expected
Russian textile workers
Linked valued extrinsic rewards to worker performance
Productivity increased as the theory predicts

66. International Aspects of the Cognitive and Behavioral Theories of Motivation (Cont.)
Equity Theory: complex cross-cultural effects
Reward allocation decisions followed equity theory premises in U.S., Russian, and Chinese samples
Other studies
Chinese emphasized seniority in their reward decisions more than Americans.
Eastern European transition economies: endorsed positive inequity more than American students

67. International Aspects of the Cognitive and Behavioral Theories of Motivation (Cont.)
Research on Locke's Goal Setting Theory in several countries
Results consistent with U.S. work that formulated the theory
Some cultural differences
U.S. students not affected by how goals were set
Israeli students performed better when goals were set participatively; consistent with cultural of cooperation

68. Ethical Issues and the Cognitive and Behavioral Theories of Motivation
Should a manager tell employees that she or he will try to affect their behavior?
Is it ethical to create perceived negative inequity with the hope of forcing out an employee?
Should managers use knowledge of human motivation to affect people's behavior in an ethical direction?
Should that effort include punishment?

69. Ethical Issues and the Cognitive and Behavioral Theories of Motivation (Cont.)
Behavior Modification
Should humans be subjected to the type of control offered by Behavior Modification?
Who will control the people doing the controlling?
What are the ends or purposes of the control?
Is it right for managers to use Behavior Modification?

70. Ethical Issues and the Cognitive and Behavioral Theories of Motivation (Cont.)
Critics have said "no.”
Skinner responded by noting that the idea of no control is an illusion
Aspects of people's environments have always controlled their behavior
Behavior Modification offers positive reinforcement
An alternative to the widespread use of negative forms of control (punishment)

71. Ethical Issues and the Cognitive and Behavioral Theories of Motivation (Cont.)
Counter control
If target person does not respond to the consequences, they must be rearranged and tried again
Controller and target person interact
Target of the control may actually control the behavior of the person doing the controlling

72. Ethical Issues and the Cognitive and Behavioral Theories of Motivation (Cont.)
Who will control those doing the controlling?
No foolproof answer
Few doubt that Behavior Modification can be used for evil or good
You decide whether your goals are ethical, if you use Behavior Modification