1. Learning Disabilities Helping Students with an “Invisible Disability”

2. Words to Know!  Anchored instruction  Basic psychological processes  Central nervous system dysfunction  Concomitance  Curriculum-based assessment  Dysgraphia  Dyslexia  Embedded learning opportunities  Generalization  Learning strategies  Metacognition  Mnemonic  Phonological awareness  Severe discrepancy  Subtyping

3. IDEA Definition of Learning Disabilities (LD)  A disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or using language  May manifest itself in an imperfect ability to: –Listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do math  Does not include learning problems that are the result of other disabilities or environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

4. Definition - general term that refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders manifested by significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or mathematical abilities. These disorders are intrinsic to the individual, are presumed to be due to central nervous system dysfunction, and may occur across the life span. Problems - self-regulatory behaviors, social perception, and social interaction Not the result of - sensory impairment, mental retardation, serious emotional disturbance, cultural differences, or insufficient or inappropriate instruction Definition of Learning Disabilities: NJCLD TM 4-1  2002 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

5. Operationalizing the Definition Most states require three criteria be met to receive services:  Discrepancy between intelligence and achievement –An “unexpected” difference between general ability and achievement  Exclusion criterion –LD can occur with other disabilities but the learning problems must not be “primarily the result” of the other disability or other condition (e.g., low SES)  A need for special education services –The student shows specific and severe learning problems despite normal educational efforts Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

6. The student demonstrates: Inclusionary Criterion: A severe discrepancy between perceived potential and actual achievement Inclusionary Criterion: A severe discrepancy between perceived potential and actual achievement Exclusionary Criterion: A learning disability that is not primarily the result of other factors Exclusionary Criterion: A learning disability that is not primarily the result of other factors Need Criterion: A demonstrated need for special education services Need Criterion: A demonstrated need for special education services Criteria for Classification TM 4-2  2002 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

7. Characteristics  Students with LD experience one or more of the following difficulties: –Reading problems - 90% of all children identified –Deficits in written language - Perform lower across most written expression tasks –Underachievement in math - 50% have math IEP goals –Poor social skills - 75% have social skills deficits –Behavioral problems  Defining Characteristic –Specific and significant achievement deficits in the presence of adequate overall intelligence Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

8. Learning - lack of academic achievement in one or more areas Learning - lack of academic achievement in one or more areas Memory - difficulty with short- and long-term memory Memory - difficulty with short- and long-term memory Metacognition - lack of skills to direct one’s own learning Metacognition - lack of skills to direct one’s own learning Behavioral, social, and emotional - difficulty understanding social cues and behaving in socially acceptable ways Behavioral, social, and emotional - difficulty understanding social cues and behaving in socially acceptable ways Interpersonal skills - not knowing how to act in particular social situations Interpersonal skills - not knowing how to act in particular social situations Motivation and self-concept - general sense of diminished value and potential Motivation and self-concept - general sense of diminished value and potential Learning Disabilities: Characteristics TM 4-3  2002 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

9. Definition - disorders manifested by difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or mathematical abilities. Presumed to be due to central nervous system dysfunction. Definition - disorders manifested by difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or mathematical abilities. Presumed to be due to central nervous system dysfunction. Causes Causes  Neurological  Hereditary/Genetic  Teratogenic/Pollutant Factors Prevalence Prevalence  Approximately 50 percent of all students with disabilities have learning disabilities  Since 1975, the number of students with a learning disability has nearly tripled Causes and Prevalence TM 4-4  2002 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

10. Assessment Five forms of assessment are frequently used  Standardized tests –Used to measure achievement and IQ  Criterion-referenced tests –Student’s score compared to a mastery criterion to identify specific skills in need of instruction  Informal reading inventories –Used to determine student’s reading level  Curriculum-based measurement –Frequent assessment of a student’s progress in learning the objectives of the curriculum  Direct daily measurement –Observing and recording a child’s performance on a specific skill each day it is taught Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

11. Prevalence  LD is by far the largest of all special education categories –51% of all children with disabilities receive services under the LD category –5 out of every 100 students in the U.S. is diagnosed with LD –Males with LD outnumber females by 3- to-1 –The number of children identified is growing Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

12. Causes  In almost every case the cause is unknown –Brain damage or dysfunction  In most cases there is no evidence of brain damage  Assuming a child’s learning problems are caused by a dysfunctioning brain can serve as a built-in excuse for ineffective instruction –Heredity  There is growing evidence that genetics may account for at least some family linkage with dyslexia –Biochemical imbalance  Most professionals give little credence to biochemical imbalance as a cause –Environmental factors  Impoverished living conditions early in a child’s life and poor instruction probably contribute to achievement deficits  Many students’ learning problems can be remediated by direct, intensive, and systematic instruction Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

13. Nondiscriminatory evaluation includes: Standardized intelligence and achievement tests to determine whether there is a discrepancy Standardized intelligence and achievement tests to determine whether there is a discrepancy Curriculum-based assessment Curriculum-based assessment  Norm-referenced  Criterion-referenced IEP process should include a careful explanation of the term “learning disability” IEP process should include a careful explanation of the term “learning disability” Evaluation Process TM 4-5  2002 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

14. Curricular Goals: Curricular Goals:  Teach students to learn in independent and self-directed ways  Help students generalize skills from the classroom to new situations  Engage students in meaningful learning experiences to increase motivation, self-esteem, and agency Effective Methods: Effective Methods:  Learning strategies for acquisition of information, storage of information, and expression or demonstration of knowledge  Anchored instruction designed around an “anchor” and including rich resources for problem-solving Effective Teaching Practices TM 4-6  2002 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

15. Educational Approaches Explicit instruction –Provide a sufficient range of examples to illustrate a concept –Provide models of proficient performance –Have students explain how and why they make decisions –Provide frequent, positive feedback for student performance –Provide adequate practice opportunities Content enhancements –Guided notes –Graphic organizers and visual displays –Mnemonics Learning strategies –Students use task-specific strategies to guide themselves successfully through a learning task or problem Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

16. Acquisition: Self-Questioning Strategy AAttend to clues as you read SSay some questions KKeep predictions in mind IIdentify the answers TTalk about the answers Storage: Graphic Organizers Inspiration software, webs, maps, or concept diagrams Expression: POSSE (to aid reading comprehension) PPredict Ideas OOrganize Ideas S Search for the structure SSummarize the main idea EEvaluate your understanding Learning Strategies TM 4-7  2002 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

17. Early Childhood Years - ELO program - embedding learning opportunities to provide children with lots of practice to achieve goals and objectives Early Childhood Years - ELO program - embedding learning opportunities to provide children with lots of practice to achieve goals and objectives Elementary Years - Inclusionary program - conducive learning environment and strategy instruction Elementary Years - Inclusionary program - conducive learning environment and strategy instruction Middle and Secondary Years - Jasper Woodbury Project - problem-based learning - problems based on familiar situations Middle and Secondary Years - Jasper Woodbury Project - problem-based learning - problems based on familiar situations Transition and Postsecondary Years - Support services, including strategy instruction and mentoring program Transition and Postsecondary Years - Support services, including strategy instruction and mentoring program Programs and Practice TM 4-8  2002 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

18. Educational Placement Alternatives  Regular classroom –During the 99-00 school year, 45% of students with LD were educated in regular classrooms –Some school districts employ a collaborative teaching model to support the full inclusion of students with LD  Consultant teacher –Provides support to regular classroom teachers who work directly with students with learning disabilities  Resource room –A resource room is a specially staffed and equipped classroom where students with LD come for one or several periods during the school day to receive individualized instruction Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

19. Focus on the “student” rather than the “place” Focus on the “student” rather than the “place” Peer tutoring for students Peer tutoring for students Most students educated in resource room and general education classroom Most students educated in resource room and general education classroom Encourage Participation TM 4-9  2002 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

20. Current Issues and Future Trends  The discussion and debate over what constitutes a true learning disability are likely to continue  Most professionals and advocates for students with LD do not support full inclusion  Students with LD possess positive attributes and interests that teachers should identify and try to strengthen Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.