1. Warlords and Republican Dissolution I C. Marius and L. Cornelius Sulla

3. Keith Hopkins’ Analysis Conquerors and Slaves Continuous Warfare Continuous Warfare Influx of Booty Influx of Booty Investment in Land Investment in Land Formation of Large Estates Formation of Large Estates Impoverishment of Peasantry Impoverishment of Peasantry Emigration to Towns and Provinces Emigration to Towns and Provinces Growth of Urban Markets Growth of Urban Markets

5. The sword was never carried into the assembly and there was no civil slaughter until Tiberius Gracchus, tribune and law bringer, was the first to fall a victim to internal commotion; and with him many others, who were crowded together at the Capitol around the temple, were also slain. Sedition did not end with that abominable deed. Repeatedly the parties came into open conflict…As the evil gained in magnitude, open insurrections against the government and large warlike expeditions against their country were undertaken by exiles, criminals, or persons vying with one another for some office or military command. Appian, Civil Wars, 1, Introduction 2

6. Conservative Retrenchment in the Aftermath of the Gracchi Occupation of ager publicus Occupation of ager publicus Thorian Law of 118 BCE Thorian Law of 118 BCE Agrarian Law of 111 BCE Agrarian Law of 111 BCE Socio-Economic and Military Recruitment Crises Continue Socio-Economic and Military Recruitment Crises Continue Populares and Optimates Populares and Optimates

7. External Developments: New Wars, New Conquests, New Crises North: (Ligurnians, Allobroges, Arverni) and the Conquest of Gallia Narbonensis (southern France) in the 120s BCE North: (Ligurnians, Allobroges, Arverni) and the Conquest of Gallia Narbonensis (southern France) in the 120s BCE South: Jugurtha of Numidia (war with Rome, 112-106 BCE ) South: Jugurtha of Numidia (war with Rome, 112-106 BCE ) C. Marius and the Germanic Northmen (Cimbri and Teutones) C. Marius and the Germanic Northmen (Cimbri and Teutones)

8. Marius and the Northmen Cimbri and Teutones defeat Roman armies in 105 BCE Cimbri and Teutones defeat Roman armies in 105 BCE Appointment of C. Marius to consulate (novus homo): 107, 104-100, 86 BCE Appointment of C. Marius to consulate (novus homo): 107, 104-100, 86 BCE Marius defeats Cimbri and Teutones in 102/101 BCE Marius defeats Cimbri and Teutones in 102/101 BCE Land Grants in Africa for Marius’ discharged veterans (tribune Saturninus) Land Grants in Africa for Marius’ discharged veterans (tribune Saturninus)

9. Coin of C. Fundanius Ca. 100 BCE Commemorating C. Marius’ Triumph Over Cimbri and Teutones

10. Our generals always thought that those peoples [Gallic and Germanic tribesmen] should be repulsed rather than punished in war. The famous Gaius Marius himself, whose divine and extraordinary ability relieved the great affliction and destruction visited upon the Roman people, checked the enormous force of the Gauls flowing into Italy but did not himself penetrate to their cities and abodes. Cicero, On the Consular Provinces, 13.32

11. Marius and the Jugurthine War Early Roman Defeats in Africa Early Roman Defeats in Africa Charges of Corruption and Bribery at Home Charges of Corruption and Bribery at Home Marius as “New Man” Marius as “New Man” Catonian Politics against Corrupted Aristocrats Catonian Politics against Corrupted Aristocrats Supported by the Equestrian Order Supported by the Equestrian Order Appointed by Popular Assembly Appointed by Popular Assembly Property Qualification Eliminated Property Qualification Eliminated Volunteer Army (“Marius Mules”) Volunteer Army (“Marius Mules”)

12. Italian Question and the Social War of 90-87 BCE Tribunate of M. Livius Drusus, 91 BCE Tribunate of M. Livius Drusus, 91 BCE Proposes Roman citizenship to all Italians (idea had been broached in 125 BCE) Proposes Roman citizenship to all Italians (idea had been broached in 125 BCE) Courts to be shared by equestrians and senators Courts to be shared by equestrians and senators Assassination of Drusus Assassination of Drusus Italian Rebellion Italian Rebellion Establishment of Capital at Corfinium (Italia) Establishment of Capital at Corfinium (Italia) Italia mints separatist coinage (Italian bull gorging Roman wolf) Italia mints separatist coinage (Italian bull gorging Roman wolf) Aftermath Aftermath Romans grant citizenship in 89 BCE Romans grant citizenship in 89 BCE War winds down by 87 BCE (“Pyrrhic victory” for Roman aristocracy?) War winds down by 87 BCE (“Pyrrhic victory” for Roman aristocracy?)

14. Italian Bull Gorging Roman Wolf

15. The East: Mithridates VI of Pontos Competition for Bithynia as Client State Competition for Bithynia as Client State Mithridates invades Asia Minor and Greece Mithridates invades Asia Minor and Greece Slaughter of 80,000 Italian businessmen Slaughter of 80,000 Italian businessmen Occupation of Athens, 88 BCE Occupation of Athens, 88 BCE Factional Struggle in Rome for Mithridatic Command Factional Struggle in Rome for Mithridatic Command C. Marius and L. Cornelius Sulla? C. Marius and L. Cornelius Sulla? Sulla awarded command (makes his name in the Social War) Sulla awarded command (makes his name in the Social War) Sulpicius Rufus proposes transfer of command to Marius Sulpicius Rufus proposes transfer of command to Marius Sulla’s march on Rome in 88 BCE Sulla’s march on Rome in 88 BCE

17. Revolutionary Violence in Roman Republican Political Life: Sulla’s March on Rome (88 BCE) Sulpicius Rufus murdered Sulpicius Rufus murdered Flight of Marius Flight of Marius Sulla wins Mithridatic command Sulla wins Mithridatic command Marius and Cinna retake control of Rome in 87 (proscriptions) Marius and Cinna retake control of Rome in 87 (proscriptions) Sulla comes to agreement with Mithridates (85) Sulla comes to agreement with Mithridates (85) Disloyal cities of Asia Minor pay heavy reparations to Sulla Disloyal cities of Asia Minor pay heavy reparations to Sulla

18. Sulla’s Return (83 BCE ) and Dictatorship (81-79 BCE ) Battle at the Colline Gate, 82 BCE Battle at the Colline Gate, 82 BCE Proscription and Confiscations (10,000 murdered) Proscription and Confiscations (10,000 murdered) Conservative Reforms (“Turning Back the Clock”) Conservative Reforms (“Turning Back the Clock”) Restoration of Senate’s Authority Restoration of Senate’s Authority Restrictions on tribunes (ineligible for higher offices) Restrictions on tribunes (ineligible for higher offices) Control of courts returned to Senate Control of courts returned to Senate Senate doubled to 600 members (admission and incorporation of wealthiest equestrians) Senate doubled to 600 members (admission and incorporation of wealthiest equestrians) Minimum age requirements for offices enforced Minimum age requirements for offices enforced

19. After crushing Italy by war, fire, and murder, Sulla’s generals visited the cities and established garrisons at the suspected places….Sulla himself called the Roman people together in an assembly and made them a speech, vaunting his own exploits and making other menacing statements in order to inspire terror….he immediately proscribed 40 senators and 1,600 knights. He seems to have been the first to make such a formal list of those whom he condemned to death, to offer prizes to assassins and rewards to informers, and to threaten those who concealed the proscribed. Appian, Civil Wars, 1.11.95-12.103 (excerpts)

20. A Deadly Formula Unprecedented and Unconstitutional Measures Unprecedented and Unconstitutional Measures Marius’ consecutive consulships Marius’ consecutive consulships Sulla’s extended dictatorship Sulla’s extended dictatorship Use of Armies for Political Ends (Sulla’s March on Rome) Use of Armies for Political Ends (Sulla’s March on Rome) Commanders Responsible for Land Grants to Veterans Commanders Responsible for Land Grants to Veterans Charismatic General + Personal Army Charismatic General + Personal Army Death of Senatorial Government Death of Senatorial Government