1. Verbal Rehearsal, Semantic Elaboration, and Imagery

2. Rehearsal, Semantic Elaboration, and Imagery Verbal Rehearsal Determines what is encoded Semantic Elaboration Perceptual representation is semantically elaborated through use of structural descriptions Visual Imagery Perceptual representation is semantically elaborated through use of structural descriptions

3. Rehearsal, Semantic Elaboration, and Imagery Verbal Rehearsal Determines what is encoded Semantic Elaboration Perceptual representation is semantically elaborated through use of structural descriptions Visual Imagery Perceptual representation is semantically elaborated through use of structural descriptions

4. Rehearsal A voluntary action may result in the creation of a perceptual representation. Rehearsal is a voluntary action such that he consequence of the action is identical to the perceptual representation of the input whose purpose is the creation of a perceptual representation in either Working memory Long-term memory

5. Development of Rehearsal Children under 5 or 6 do not spontaneously rehearse. Can be induced to rehearse Recall increases if children rehearse. But these young children revert to not rehearsing. Third graders rehearse poorly, but eight graders distribute rehearsals well. Reflects improving metamemory with schooling: Understanding of one’s own memory abilities.

6. Dual Aspect of Rehearsal Perceptual Aspect The effect of rehearsal is to organize smaller patterns into larger ones. There may be interference between the perceptual experience produced by rehearsal and an experience produced by an input. Rehearsal takes time and this limits the amount encoded Semantic Aspect

7. Dual Aspect of Rehearsal Perceptual Aspect The effect of rehearsal is to organize smaller patterns into larger ones. Tulving (1962) found that even when a list is presented in a different order on each study trial people always recall it in the same order. Semantic Aspect

8. Dual Aspect of Rehearsal Perceptual Aspect Semantic Aspect Distributed rehearsal encodes representation as part of long-term memory Recognition does not require recency Part of polymodal semantic network Recall may be possible Hence learning is a byproduct of attention

9. Semantic Aspect of Rehearsal Distributed rehearsal determines which representations are transferred from working memory to long-term memory. Primacy Von Restorff Effect Effect of rate of presentation

10. Effects of Distributed Rehearsal on List Learning Primacy First few items receive more rehearsals, hence are more likely to be encoded and ultimately recalled. Von Restorff Effect Distinctive item receives more rehearsals, hence is more likely to be encoded and ultimately recalled. Rate of Presentation  The faster the presentation rate, the less time for rehearsal.  Hence, learning is a negative function of rate of presentation.

11. Effects of Distributed Rehearsal on List Learning Primacy First few items receive more rehearsals, hence are more likely to be encoded and ultimately recalled. Von Restorff Effect Rate of Presentation

12. Primacy is a function of number of rehearsals Modigliani (1980) showed that the primacy effect is a result of distributed rehearsals.

13. Effects of Distributed Rehearsal on List Learning Primacy Von Restorff Effect Distinctive item receives more rehearsals, hence is more likely to be encoded and ultimately recalled. Rate of Presentation

14. Instructions You will see a list of words. Try to recall as many words as possible.

15. Von Restorff Effect Distinctive item steals rehearsals from other items

16. Effects of Distributed Rehearsal on List Learning Primacy Von Restorff Effect Rate of Presentation  The faster the presentation rate, the less time for rehearsal.  Hence, learning is a negative function of rate of presentation.

17. Results From RSVP Studies (Potter 1975, 1976; Intraub 1980; 1981) Task Identify pictures as belonging to a (complex) category (e.g., decorations) or not. Very fast (114 msec) presentation rate. Results Observers perform the detection task accurately but do not remember most of what they have seen Conclusion Attending to input without rehearsal is not sufficient for transfer to LTM.

18. Rehearsal, Semantic Elaboration, & Imagery Verbal Rehearsal Determines what is encoded Semantic Elaboration Perceptual representation is semantically elaborated through use of structural descriptions For example, word pair is elaborated into linking sentence. The CAR hit the TREE. Visual Imagery Perceptual representation is semantically elaborated through use of structural descriptions

19. Linking Sentences Bobrow & Bower (1969) compared the effect of reading a linking sentence to generating one for oneself on cued recall. Yoked control subjects studied the linking sentences generated by one of the experimental subjects.

20. Rehearsal, Imagery, & Organization Verbal Rehearsal Determines what is encoded Semantic Elaboration Perceptual representation is semantically elaborated through use of structural descriptions Linking sentences More generally, memory is a function of comprehension Craik & Lockhart (1972) Bransford & Johnson (1972) Visual Imagery Perceptual representation is semantically elaborated through use of structural descriptions

21. Rehearsal, Imagery, & Organization Verbal Rehearsal Determines what is encoded Semantic Elaboration Perceptual representation is semantically elaborated through use of structural descriptions Reduces the amount that needs to be encoded (chunking) Has bootstrap effect as network expands Visual Imagery Perceptual representation is semantically elaborated through use of structural descriptions

22. Bootstrap Effect There is a strong bootstrapping effect in learning. The more that is known, the easier it is to acquire new information because it can immediately be encoded as part of a detailed representation However, the combination of old and new information can lead to false memories Knowledge can either facilitate or retard (Proactive Interference) depending on the relationship between the old and new information

23. Rehearsal, Semantic Elaboration, & Imagery Verbal Rehearsal Determines what is encoded Semantic Elaboration Perceptual representation is semantically elaborated through use of structural descriptions Visual Imagery Perceptual representation is semantically elaborated through use of structural descriptions

24. Rehearsal, Imagery, & Organization Verbal Rehearsal Semantic Elaboration Visual Imagery Perceptual representation is semantically elaborated through use of structural descriptions Learning is a positive function of the visual imagery of the study materials. Learning increases when the student consciously attempts to generate visual images for the study materials. Interactive imagery is more effective than discrete imagery for pairs and lists of study items.