1. Declarative Learning

2. When a voluntary action is performed in response to a perceptual input A causal structural description is formed Perceptual representation of input Plan of action Perceptual representation of the consequence of the action Examples Kicking to move a mobile Shaking a rattle Drinking from a cup

3. Voluntary action and declarative memory In other words, voluntary action results in: Perceptual representation of input Semantic representation of input Plan of action Representation of the consequence of the action Hence, learning is a by-product of action

4. Voluntary action and declarative memory Voluntary action results in: Perceptual representation of input Determined by perceptual features of input Procedural, Intramodal & Incremental e. g. words and faces Consists of structural descriptions. During learning: Novel pathways are added to familiar representations Novel representations are added from working memory Semantic (declarative) representation of input

5. Which novel representations are encoded depends on Perceptual features of input Determine perceptual representation Actions taken by observer (often in response to task demands) Determine probability of representation being encoded

6. Voluntary action and declarative memory Voluntary action results in: Perceptual representation of input Semantic (declarative) representation of input Determined by task demands Multiple, cross-modal, instance representations may be independently associated with an episode with separate probabilities. e. g., face, features, name; phrase, words Short-term encoding (recency) is essential attribute of working memory Long-term encoding is probabilistic and all-or-none

7. Voluntary action and declarative memory Voluntary action results in: Perceptual representation of input Semantic (declarative) representation of input Determined by task demands Multiple, cross-modal, instance representations may be independently associated with an episode with separate probabilities. e. g., face, features, name; phrase, words Short-term encoding (recency) is essential attribute of working memory Long-term encoding is probabilistic and all-or-none

8. U-shaped serial position function in immediate recall of list (Ebbinghaus, 1885) A sequence (e.g., digit string) is encoded in two different ways, producing U-shaped serial position function Last four items are perceptual representations Recency- last four items most likely to be recalled when recalled first Rehearsal encodes (long-term) representations of first one or two items Primacy- First one or two items more likely to be recalled than middle items

9. Recency In immediate recall, the last few list items are recalled the best, then the first few. Notice that the size of the primary and recency effects does not depend on the length of the list.

10. Voluntary action and declarative memory Voluntary action results in: Perceptual representation of input Semantic (declarative) representation of input Determined by task demands Multiple, cross-modal, instance representations may be independently associated with an episode with separate probabilities. e. g., face, features, name; phrase, words Short-term encoding (recency) is essential attribute of working memory Long-term encoding is probabilistic and all-or-none

11. Consolidation The encoding of a representation so that something can later be recognized and/or recalled is called: Leaving a trace in memory Consolidation Transfer from working memory to long- term memory Increasing the retention interval

12. Consolidation and Neurogenesis New neurons are born every day (neurogenesis). Most of these neurons die within a day, but learning causes them to leave longer. It may be that some neurons live longer than others.

13. Probability of Consolidation Emotion increases probability of encoding. Distributed practice increases probability of encoding. Rehearsal can distribute practice, hence increase retention interval. Creates an abstract (cross-modal) hierarchical representation of instance

14. Probability of Consolidation Emotion increases probability of encoding. Distributed practice increases probability of encoding. Rehearsal can distribute practice, hence increase retention interval. Creates an abstract (cross-modal) hierarchical representation of instance

15. Perceptual Segmentation versus Rehearsal Perceptual segmentation creates a recency representation in working memory, but it is subject to Retroactive Interference (RI). Rehearsal (generating a sequence) creates a more permanent semantic representation less susceptible to RI. Hence, long-term memory is again primarily a by-product of action.