1. Approaches to Knowledge Descriptive Approach Conveying of knowledge through the verbal and pictorial description of events or circumstances Rationalistic Approach Logical organizing and analysis of existing information Scientific Approach Discovery – generation of new knowledge

2. Restrictions and Assumptions of Science Science only deals with the Empirical Information which arrives in the brain via one of the sensory channels Science Assumes Orderliness Scientists believe there is an underlying pattern or order to all events including behavioral events Makes no sense to seek the “Laws of Behavior” unless we assume that behavior is lawful Science Assumes Determinism All events are caused by earlier events. Earlier events determine which events will follow. Prediction of future events are only possible if their causes are in the past. Our ability to predict the future demonstrates our understanding of what causes an event to occur in the first place The psychologist assumes that all behavior is determined by prior events. Hence, all behavior is predictable.

3. The Doctrine of Determinism Y = f (X 1, X 2, X 3, …X n ) Notice in this equation the value of Y is determined by the values we select for the X variables “Y” therefore may correctly be called a “dependent variable” We have freedom to select values for the “X’s” on the right side of the equation A synonym for freedom is the word “independent”, hence we refer to the variables on the right side of the equation as “independent variables”

4. Classification of Variables Independent Variable is the variable the investigator wishes to manipulate in order to determine its effects upon behavior. Dependent Variable is the measurable aspect of behavior the investigator is interested in determining the effect of the manipulation upon. Manipulate means to cause to change in value Called an Independent Variable because the investigator is free (or at liberty) to change its value Called a Dependent Variable because we believe its value will depend upon which values we select for our Independent Variable

5. Behavior is Deterministic Y = f (X 1, X 2, X 3, …X n ) Behavior = f (event 1, event 2, … event n ) The Dependent Variable in psychology is always some measurable aspect of behavior (Response) The events that determine behavior (IVs) come from three major categories: Environmental, Organismic, and Behavioral.

6. Environmental Variables Environmental variables refer to how the surroundings or situation impact upon behavioral determination These are also known as “Stimulus” variables because a stimulus is defined as a change in the environment Most relationships studied in psychology are R=f(S) relationships. In other words, psychology looks to see how the environment affects what we do or how well we perform on some task. Example: Reading Speed = f (level of illumination)

7. Organismic Variables Organismic variables refer to how inherent properties of the organism under study affects behavior These are also known as “Subject” variables because they refer to characteristics of the subject A second type of relationship studied in psychology is called the R=f(O) relationship. Example: Reading Speed = f (Age of the Subject)

8. Behavioral Variables Behavioral variables refer to the fact that one behavior can affect other behaviors that are simultaneously occurring These are also known as “Response” variables A third type of relationship studied in psychology is called the R=f(R) relationship. Example: Reading Speed = f (Simultaneous Music Listening)

9. Operationalism One of the principal differences between science and common sense is that science is grounded in operationalism. Casual use of words can often lead to ambiguity or misunderstanding. To avoid this scientists operationally define each term and concept they employ. When we operationally define a variable, this means we describe the techniques of quantifying or measuring it. Operational definitions provide precise, unambiguous meaning for concepts and variables.

10. Is Performance a Function of Practice? Theoretical Relationship Performance = f (Practice) Empirical Relationship Operational Definition # Maze Errors = f (# Trials)

11. What is a Theory? The Layperson misunderstands the relative importance of theories and facts A Scientific Theory is not a guess arrived at in the absence of facts A Theory is a very high-order explanation that integrates all known pertinent facts Theories serve as a basis for the prediction of “Future Facts” Theory is the ultimate product of Science