Memory Zeus and Mnemosyne (Memory) were the parents of the Muses, the guiding spirits of the Nine Arts.

Memory Defines who we are Informs what we will do Famous cases:
Clive Wearing ( S.V. Shereshevskii (A. Luria) The paradox of memory, it can last your lifetime or be gone tomorrow, you can be unable to remember something you want to recall, or incapable of ignoring what you would like to forget.

Memory Types of Memory Processes Iconic Short-Term Methods
Masking Short-Term Mnemonics & Working Memory Long term Implicit Explicit Levels of processing Processes Encoding, storage, retrieval Forgetting Methods Recognition, recall Anatomy of Memory Hippocampus and Amygdala

Schacter’s “Seven Sins of Memory”
Memories are transient (fade with time) We do not remember what we do not pay attention to Our memories can be temporarily blocked We can misattribute the source of memory We are suggestible in our memories We can show memory distortion (bias) We often fail to forget the things we would like not to recall (persistence of memory) Schacter (2001) Seven Sins of Memory

A Tale of Three Memories
Memory Short Term / Working Memory Iconic / Sensory Memory Long-term Memory

Iconic memory large capacity Same modality as experience Very fast decay

Short Term Memory, Limited capacity Acoustic recoding Rehearsal maintains information Probabilistic transfer into LTM information from LTM retrieved and used here

Long term memory Unlimited capacity Semantic coding Little decay

Traditional Model of Memory
Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) 3 Stage Model Short Term Memory (STM) Long Term Memory (LTM) Sensory registers Stimuli Information Processing Model

Sensory Stores Iconic store or Visual sensory register
Holds visual information for 250 msec longer Information held is pre-categorical Capacity – up to 12 items Information fades quickly Auditory sensory register Holds auditory information for a 2-3 seconds longer to enable processing

Sperling (1960) Iconic Memory Research
Whole report procedure Flash a matrix of letters for 50 milliseconds Identify as many letters as possible Participants typically remembered 4 letters Partial Report Procedure Participants are told to report bottom row Participants were able to report any row requested

Sperling Sensory Memory Demonstration
A matrix of 12 letters and numbers will be briefly flashed on the next few slides As soon as you see the information, write down everything you can remember in its proper location The following demonstration was created by Thomas P. Pusateri (2004) for Thomson/Wadsworth.

Whole Report Here’s where the letters and numbers will appear-- Keep your eyes on the “X” on the next slide X X X X Instructor Note: Once the students have written down all they can remember just click the mouse to see the matrix and determine how many items the students remember.

X B 5 Q T 2 H S 9 O 4 M Y

B 5 Q T 2 H S 9 O 4 M Y

Partial Report – No Delay
For the next demonstration, report only the top, middle, or bottom row. The row to report will be identified by markers IMMEDIATELY after you see the letters. X X X X Instructor Note: Once the students have written down all they can remember just click the mouse to see the matrix and determine how many items the students remember.

X > < 2 V 9 R Q M 7 L > K H 5 F <

2 V 9 R Q M 7 L > K H 5 F <

Averbach & Coriell (1961) Iconic Memory Research
G E U L M F S X W P M B D H J Y - Showed matrix for 50 msec Place a small mark above a letter at different delays Backward visual masking: they found that if the marker was near the target, you could remember it, but if it was in the same location you would forget it. This is an example of spatial interference. Demonstration and discussion of Averbach & Coriell (1961) study. Just click and the demonstration will begin. See if students can correctly recall the letter F. Click again to see the full matrix and discuss the experiment.

Quizz During his experiments studying iconic store, Sperling would flash an array of stimuli (e.g., letters and/or numbers) for approximately 50 milliseconds on a screen. Asked to recall just the symbols presented on the third line would be an example of the a) backward visual masking. b) forward visual masking. c) partial-report procedure. d) whole-report procedure.

Quizz A second stimulus is presented shortly after the first item in the same location and “erases” the original stimulus. This is called a) stimulus blocking. b) synesthesia. c) visuospatial sketchpad. d) backward visual masking.

Short Term and Long Term Memory
You experience memory as a single, unified whole. Yet, remembering almost anything recruits several systems and involves multiple processes.

Memory Processes Encoding Storage Retrieval
Processes used to store information in memory Sensory coding: Are things coded visually or echoically? How would you test? Storage Processes used to maintain information in memory Rehearsal and elaboration Retrieval Processes used to get information back out of memory

Two Kinds of Memory Evidence: The serial position curve.
The task: I present you with a list and you recall it. You can recall the words in any order and try to recall as many as you can (called a free recall task). We graph the frequency of recall by serial position in the list (first word, second word, etc.). Looking at that curve can tell us something about memory stores.

MATTRESS

SNOOZE

ARTICHOKE

INSOMNIA

PILLOW

Write down the words you saw

Here are the words in the order viewed
ARTICHOKE INSOMNIA REST TOSS NIGHT ALARM NAP SNORE PILLOW BED CLOCK DREAM NIGHT TURN MATTRESS SNOOZE NOD TIRED Did you recall? Explanation Bed? Clock? Primacy Effect Snore? Pillow? Recency Effect Night? Spacing Effect Once the students examine how many words they have remembered, you can click and discuss each of the memory effects one by one. Artichoke? Distinctiveness Toss? Toss & Turn? Clustering False Memory Sleep?

Serial Position Curve

Serial Position Effect
Primacy effect – remembering stuff at beginning of list better than middle because of Rehearsal Recency Effect – remembering stuff at the end of list better than middle because of lack of Interference

Serial Position Effect
Recall immediately after learning Recall several hours after learning LTM Recall from Recall from LTM STM Primacy effect – remembering stuff at beginning of list better than middle Recency Effect – remembering stuff at the end of list better than middle

Methods in Study of Memory
Which type of memory test would you rather have? An essay or a multiple choice exam? The difference between these two types of tests captures the difference between a recall task and a recognition test

Recall Tasks Free Recall Cued Recall Serial Recall
Recall all the words you can from a list you saw previously Cued Recall Recall everything you can that is associated with Plato in Psychology Participants are given a cue to facilitate recall Serial Recall Recall the names of all previous presidents in the order they were elected Need to recall order as well as item names

Recognition Tasks Circle all the words you previously studied
Indicate which pictures you saw yesterday The participant selects from a list of items they have previously seen

Short-Term Memory Rehearsal Attention Rehearsal Retrieval Attention
Attend to information in the sensory store, it moves to STM Rehearsal Repeat the information to keep maintained in STM Retrieval Access memory in LTM and place in STM Short Term Memory (STM) Attention Storage & Retrieval

Short Term Memory Demo

Memory Strategies: Organization Works!

Research on Short-Term Memory
Miller (1956) Examined memory capacity 7+/- 2 items or “chunks” Chunking -- organize the input into larger units Exceeds capacity Reorganize by chunking. Student using a chunking strategy can use LTM of important dates to remember a longer string of numbers. College Graduation Birth-year H.S graduation

Retrieval from STM Is the search serial or parallel?
Serial indicates one by one search Parallel means all items are processed at once Is the search exhaustive or self-terminating? Exhaustive indicates that all items in the set are examined Self-terminating means that after target is found the search stops

Studying Searching in STM
Studying Searching in STM Saul Sternberg (1967) Memorize a set of numbers (6,3,8,2,7) Shown a probe digit Participant must indicate if the probe was in the set Reaction time to respond is measured 2 6,3,8,2,7 After first click, the demonstration is automated and will simulate a trial in Sternberg’s experiment. Yes

Sternberg (1967) 3 critical factors manipulated
3 critical factors manipulated How many items were in the set the participants had to memorize Whether the probe was in the list The probe’s location in the set

Sternberg (1967) Possible Result Patterns
A represents parallel processing B illustrates serial processing C illustrates exhaustive serial processing D illustrates self-terminating serial processing Figure from Sternberg text.

Sternberg’s Conclusion
A serial exhaustive model But…. Corcoran (1971) proposed that a parallel model could also explain the pattern found Townsend (1971) stated it was mathematically impossible to distinguish parallel from serial Thus, both models still exist

Memory Strategies: To get from STM to LTM
Mnemonic devices are strategies to improve memory by organizing information Method of Loci: ideas are associated with a place or part of a building Peg-Word system: peg words are associated with ideas (e.g. “one is a bun”) Interactive Images : verbal associations are created for items to be learned

Imagine the words interacting
Peg Word system Imagine the words interacting

Forgetting Is a Process, Too!
Proactive interference: old information interferes with recall of new information Retroactive interference: new information interferes with recall of old information Decay theory: memory trace fades with time Motivated forgetting: involves the loss of painful memories (protective memory loss) Retrieval failure: the information is still within LTM, but cannot be recalled because the retrieval cue is absent

Issues in Memory Reasons for inaccuracy of memory:
Source amnesia: attribution of a memory to the wrong source (e.g. a dream is recalled as an actual event) Sleeper effect: a piece of information from an unreliable source is initially discounted, but is recalled after the source has been forgotten Misinformation effect: we incorporate outside information into our own memories

Quizz John is presented with the letter C followed by a square less than 100 ms afterwards. He was not able to report the letter. The square interfered with getting the letter into short term memory The letter C was an iconic trace The square was an instance of backward masking All of the above A and C only

Quizz As a web designer, Samantha wanted to base her site on mnemonic principles. Which of the following techniques did she use: Got as many links on one page as possible Organized the links in groups of seven Had very dynamic moving and flashing banners Organized the information into semantically related groups

Baddeleys’ Working Memory Model
Central Executive Articulatory Loop Visual Scribe Visuo-spatial Sketch Pad Phonological Store Baddeley (1986) Baddeley’s model of working memory contains several elements: A central executive, auditory working memory, visuo-spatial working memory, and an episodic Buffer. Material can also enter conscious workspace from long-term memory. Episodic Buffer

Working Memory Model Articulatory Loop Visuo-spatial Sketch Pad
Used to maintain information for a short time and for acoustic rehearsal Visuo-spatial Sketch Pad Used for maintaining and processing visuo-spatial information Episodic Buffer Used for storage of a multimodal code, holding an integrated episode between systems using different codes

Working Memory Model Central Executive
Focuses attention on relevant items and inhibiting irrelevant ones Plans sequence of tasks to accomplish goals, schedules processes in complex tasks, often switches attention between different parts Updates and checks content to determine next step in sequence of parts

Demo Working Memory and Phonological Loop
Please memorize the following numbers

Please answer the following questions
A follows B True/ False B is not preceded by A True/False Please recall the list of numbers

Working Memory Context State Dependent Recall
Trouble recognizing somebody at work when you meet them on vacation Scuba divers learning a list of words under water will recall it better underwater than on land State Dependent Recall Learning while happy or sad means better recall while happy or sad (drunk too, but general performance down)

End of Memory Part I

Long Term memory

Examples of Types of Memories
Episodic: “I bumped into a friend today at the diner whom I hadn’t seen since last year.” Semantic: “George Washington was the first President of the U.S.” Procedural Memory: Riding a bike Classical conditioning: Reflexes Priming: Jingles

Implicit and Explicit Memory
Explicit memory tasks Recall in Voluntary and Conscious Also called Declarative memory Implicit memory tasks Involuntary and Unconscious Require participants to complete a task (the completion of the task indirectly indicates memory) Also Called Non-declarative memory

Implicit / Explicit Memory

Priming Demo Hand out sheets to Group 1 and 2

Priming Demo Unscramble L T E P A PETAL PLATE

Priming Why did half the class say plate and the other half say petal?
They were primed to do so There were two different sheets of unscrambled words

Priming sheet 1 F I N E K K N I F E O P O N S S P O O N K R O F
Unscramble the following word: F I N E K O P O N S K R O F P U C E C U S A R L T E P A Answer: K N I F E S P O O N F O R K C U P S A U C E R P L A T E Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming

Priming sheet 2 N Y P A S P A N S Y F E L A L E A F K T A L S
Unscramble the following word: N Y P A S F E L A K T A L S D U B L O B S O M S L T E P A Answer: P A N S Y L E A F S T A L K B U D B L O S S O M P E T A L Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming

Levels of Processing Craik & Lockhart – Continuum of Processing
• Shallow: surface, perceptual features • Deep: processed, meaningful interpretation – Level or “depth” of processing affects its memorability – Deeper encoding produces more elaborate, longer-lasting memory

Support for Levels of Processing
Craik & Tulving (1975) Participants studied a list in 3 different ways Structural: Is the word in capital letters? Phonemic: Does the word rhyme with dog? Semantic: Does the word fit in this sentence? The ______ is delicious. A recognition test was given to see which type of processing led to the best memory

Craik & Tulving (1975) Results

Other Forms of Deep Processing
The importance of organization Taxonomic, hierarchical, thematic Self-relevant information Self-generation Elaboration Distinctiveness

Connectionist Perspective
Parallel distributed processing model Memory uses a network Meaning comes from patterns of activation across the entire network Spreading Activation Network Model Supported by priming effects

Memory for general knowledge
Connectionist models Parallel processing Learning (unobserved) Layers (Input, Processing, Output) Nodes and Links Weights Increasingly popular, powerful Hard do damage, robust  plausible James McClelland

Scripts and Schemas Notice the Verbal / Spatial connotations

Memory for general knowledge
Scripts For routine events Restaurant example Allows inferences, problem of intrusions

Schemas We reconstruct memories according to a “map” of behaviors that are highly related to one another, and form a set. Prior knowledge influences memory Interpretation of details Reductions in ambiguity Makes unusual things stand out

Remember This The procedure is actually quite simple. First, you arrange the items into different groups. Of course one pile may be sufficient depending on how much there is to do. If you have to go somewhere else due to lack of facilities that is the next step; otherwise you are pretty well set. It is important not to overdo things. That is, it is better to do too few things at once than too many. In the short run this may not seem important but complications can easily arise. A mistake can be expensive as well. At first, the whole procedure will seem complicated. Soon, however, it will become just another facet of life. It is difficult to foresee any end to the necessity for this task in the immediate future, but then, one can never tell. After the procedure is completed one arranges the materials into different groups again. Then they can be put into their appropriate places. Eventually they will be used once more and the whole cycle will then have to be repeated. However, that is part of life.

Recall The Last Slide I have one word for you: LAUNDRY
Try recalling the list again

Schemas in action

(There is no meaningful difference between chunks and schemas)

Quizz Frankie plays the stock market, remembering the tickers (the initials of the company name used in the stock market, like GOG for Google) of corporations using various strategies. She associates the tickers with a series of pre-set words. This is the Method of Loci She has created a fantasy story using the tickers as names of heroes, and the companies as names of castles. This relates to LOP and self-generation. She picked companies where she has worked in the past. This relates to working memory. She imagines a taking a walk through her house, seeing the tickers and the names of the companies in photographs or labels. This is related to LOP for self-reference. Not correct, this is the Peg system. correct, she generates the story herself. This is not word association, since it involves a coherent story. Incorrect, this would be self-relevant information. Incorrect, method of loci. Self-reference can refer to your house, but the systematic flow from one room to another using spatial processing much more.

If You Do Not Retrieve from LTM…
Has the memory disappeared? or Is the memory still there but cannot retrieve it (available, but not accessible)?

Evidence Supporting “Still There” Theory Nelson (1971)
Paired associate List 43-house 67-dog 38-dress 77-scissors Cued recall test 43- ________ 67- ________ Two week delay Subjects recalled 75% of items on list But focus was on 25% they forgot.

Nelson (1971) Critical Manipulation
If participants forgot “38-dress” and “77-scissors” then participants relearned either same pairs or changed pairs 25% “forgot” Relearned Results Same 38-dress scissors 78% Changed 38-apple 77-kettle 43% The better performance of participants in the same condition indicate that there was some memory left for “forgotten” items. Otherwise both groups would remember the same amount.

The Reconstructive Nature of Memory

The War of the Ghosts One night two young men from Egulac went down to the river to hunt seals, and while they were there it became foggy and calm. Then they heard war-cries, and they thought: "Maybe this is a war-party". They escaped to the shore, and hid behind a log. Now canoes came up, and they heard the noise of paddles, and saw one canoe coming up to them. There were five men in the canoe, and they said: "What do you think? We wish to take you along. We are going up the river to make war on the people". One of the young men said: "I have no arrows". "Arrows are in the canoe", they said. "I will not go along. I might be killed. My relatives do not know where I have gone. But you", he said, turning to the other, "may go with them.” So one of the young men went, but the other returned home. And the warriors went on up the river to a town on the other side of Kalama. The people came down to the water, and they began to fight, and many were killed. But presently the young man heard one of the warriors say: "Quick, let us go home: that Indian has been hit". Now he thought: "Oh, they are ghosts". He did not feel sick, but they said he had been shot. So the canoes went back to Egulac, and the young man went ashore to his house, and made a fire. And he told everybody and said: " Behold I accompanied the ghosts, and we went to fight. Many of our fellows were killed, and many of those who attacked us were killed. They said I was hit, and I did not feel sick". He told it all, and then he became quiet. When the sun rose he fell down. Something black came out of his mouth. His face became contorted. The people jumped up and cried. He was dead.

Bartlett’s Ghost Story
Changes occurred by Omission. Ghosts omitted early, wounds of the spirit become wounds of the flesh Rationalization. Growing more coherent “Conventionalization” Temporal order. Change in order of events “No trace of an odd or supernatural element is left: we have a perfectly straightforward story of a fight and a death”

Bartlett Assigning a name influences the reproduction. The transformations are in the direction of conventional representations (highest frequency of exposure) Features that are not at first recognized are elaborated until recognition is produced Once a recognizable feature is produced, it is reduced to its most conventional simplification

Loftus

Replicated on a group of people
What memories did people remember? 7 out of 24 remembered the false event How are the events remembered? True memories described more True memories rated more clear False memories’ clarity increased over time Can they choose the false memory? 19 out of 24 figured out which was false Process of elimination?

One Person’s False Memory...
“I vaguely, vague, I mean this is very vague, remember the lady helping me and Tim and my mom doing something else, but I don't remember crying. I mean I can remember a hundred times crying..... I just remember bits and pieces of it. I remember being with the lady. I remember going shopping. I don't think I, I don't remember the sunglasses part.“ "Well, it can't be Slasher, 'cause I know that he ran up in the...the chimney and I know that that cat got smashed and I know that we got robbed so it had to be that mall one.” "..I totally remember walking around in those dressing rooms and my mom not being in the section she said she'd be in. You know what I mean?"

Individual Differences
Some people are more susceptible to misinformation than others 7 out of 24 participants People high at risk for misinformation acceptance have Poor general memory High scores on imagery vividness High empathy scores

The Neuro-anatomy of Memory
Hippocampus Amygdala

Hippocampus Anatomy of Memory
Amygdala: emotional memory and memory consolidation Basal ganglia & cerebellum: memory for skills, habits and CC responses Hippocampus: memory recognition, spatial, episodic memory, laying down new declarative long-term memories Thalamus, formation of new memories and working memories Cortical Areas: encoding of factual memories, storage of episodic and semantic memories, skill learning, priming.

H.M. Or Got Memory? -Prior to 1953, the role of the MTL in memory was relatively unknown -H.M. changed all that: bilateral temporal lobectomy = complete anterograde amnesia -Brenda Milner’s neuropsychological testing In 1933, a 7-year-old boy fell from his bicycle, hit his head and was unconscious for 5 minutes. this event is thought to have been the precipitating event that ultimately led to some of our greatest insights into memory processing by the brain. this boy was, of course, HM. Soon after that incident, he began developing minor seizures, followed by his first major seizure on his 16th birthday. Because of these seizures, his education was sporadic, but he eventually graduated high school with a technical focus at age 21. Subsequently he worked on an assembly line as a motor winder. His seizures soon increased to around 10 a day and he was unable to perform his job. Attempts to control his seizures with drugs were unsuccessful and led to a brain operation. EEG was unable to localize the source of the seizures, but because of theknown epileptogenic qualities of the MTL, an experimental surgery was conducted in an effort to ameliorate the seizures. In 1953, when HM was 27, the neurosurgeon William Scolville performed a bilateral medial temporal lobe resection. the operation reduced the frequency of seizures to a point where they were now largely prevented by medication, although minor attacks persisted. However, one striking and totally unexpected consequence of the surgery was a grave loss of the ability to form new declarative memories. HM is probably the most examined and best known neurological patient ever studied, largely because of the combination of the unusual purity of the ensuing memory disorder, the static nature of his condition, his cooperative nature and the skill of the researchers who protected and worked with him. The other patients who received bilateral tlobectomies were not followed up as well because they were psychotic. Those described w/o memory deficits had lobectomy either unilaterally, or only the temporal pole was removed, sparing the HC. Anecdotes from Eichenbaum & Cohen p

H.M.’s retrograde amnesia
% Correct Famous Faces Recognition by Decade H.M. Comparison -H.M.s RA extends back ~11 years pre-surgery -Famous Faces performance is normal for 40s, then below normal for 50s, then severely impaired in the 60s & 70s HM provides a particularly good example of Ribot’s law. An extensive battery of tests of memory for public and personal events show his impairment extends back 11 years prior to the surgery. These studies used several strategies to assesss HMs memory for material he was presumed to have acquired across the decades prior to his surgery. This graph shows the results of a test of recognition for famous faces from the 1940s through the 1970s. His memory for well before the surgey is intact, but that in the 50s (during his severe epilepsy and surgery) declines and then in the 60’s and 70s (in the anterograde domain) his recognition is nonexistent. Subsequent studies of RA following MTL damage has tied the severity of RA to the amount of damage to this area. This study involved four patients who had become amnesic witout other cognitive impairment following specific brain insult and who had , for unrelated reasons, subsequently died and come to autopsy invovling histological analysis of the brain damage. Two patients had limited RA and their damage was found to be only in the CA1 field of the HC. Two other patients had more extnesive retrograde amnesia extending back years. These patients had cell loss througout the HC and to some extent in the entorhinal cortex as well.

Intact domains of memory in amnesia
-Working memory: HM’s digit span is normal -Skill and Perceptual learning So we talked about HMs anterograde amnesia with temporally graded retrograde amnesia. In general, he can remember what he learned in the years prior to the surgey (with the exception of a few years immediately prior to the surgery), but he can no longer learn anything, or can he? Tests of working memory reveal that HM is normal, he can immediately reproduce a list of numbers as long as that of control subjects. the memory deficit becomes evident as soon as his immediate memory span is exceeded or after a delay with some distraction. As listed previously, early studies tried everything on HM and finally researchers stumbled on a form of learning that HM coud do: habit learning. This is tested using the mirror-star tracing task. Describe task here. This test seems quite simple, but in fact, normal subjects require some time to successfully do the task. HM showed strikingly increased performance on the task over training, in spite of the fact that he could not remember ever performing the task or seeing the apparatus.

Perceptual Learning Gollins partial pictures test
Perceptual learning is assessed with the Gollins partial pictures task, which involves the recognition of fragmented line drawings of common objects. for each of 20 items, subjects are presented with a series of five cards containing fragments of a realistic linee drawing of the same object. Subjects are initially shown all 20 of the most difficult items and asked to identify the object, then the slightly easier ones and so on. After going through all the pictures and a 1 hour intervening period, the enitre test is repeated and the unmber of errors (unidentified drawings) is scored. HM’s scores were not as good as healthy controls, but he showed a significant degree of savings, assessed by decreased errors across testing even though he could not remember ever having taken the test. Gollins partial pictures test

What does the Hippocampus Do?
Place cells neurons that respond when you are in a specific place, in the place field of the neuron. So a place cell would fire when you are in your bedroom or house, etc. Each hippocampal neuron has a place field in many different environments. At first when you put the rat in the new environment, no neurons fire. Then as the rat becomes familiar with the room, neurons fire for particular parts of the room.

What does the Hippocampus Do?
Configural Association Theory The theory that the hippocampus retains the interrelation among cues, spatially and temporally. So it remembers the relationship between a visual cue and a location as signaling food. Path Integration Theory the hippocampus calculates current location, past location, and future location from one’s own movement.

The Amygdal: Fear and Memory

Amygdala • The amygdala modulates the formation of memories in other brain structures, such as the hippocampus. Information or events of particular emotional / motivational significance are better remembered than those of little importance (c.f. flashbulb memory). Lesions in humans and primates reveal a role for the amygdala in the perception of emotional cues and the generation of emotional responses, particularly those associated with negative emotions such as fear.

Amygdala • Amygdala lesions before retention testing disrupt conditioned fear. Hence, the amygdala may be the site of storage of fear memories. Temporary inactivation by drugs during acquisition has the same effect, suggesting a genuine role in memory encoding.

The End of Memory

Forensics and Memory: False Confessions

Forensics and Memory: Brief Overview of Criminal Justice System
74% of crimes do not result in arrest 76% of charges are dropped or juvenile 22% of charges go to trial Only about 14 of 1000 crimes committed will actually go to trial – criminal or civil

Concepts to know Interference: Proactive vs. Retroactive 1 2 1 2
Explicitness: Explicit vs. Implicit Bla

Concepts to know Modal model of memory: Encoding specificity
Sensory memory  Short term memory Long term memory Storage Information Response Retrieval Encoding specificity -Context effect -State dependent learning

Concepts to know Working memory = structured STM Central executive
Phonological loop Visuospatial sketchpad Memory structure LTM Declarative Procedural Episodic Semantic Knowing that... Knowing how to... Implicit Explicit Vivid Recall Knowing

Nickerson & Adams

Nickerson & Adams 1 c

Memory Zeus and Mnemosyne (Memory) were the parents of the Muses, the guiding spirits of the Nine Arts.

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Memory Zeus and Mnemosyne (Memory) were the parents of the Muses, the guiding spirits of the Nine Arts.

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