1. Instructional Design

2. Last Week: Cognitivism and Constructivism

3. Why do
we lecture ???

4. Why Lecture? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

5. Reasons
1. To Enthuse Students

6. Reasons 1. To Enthuse Students How? Put yourself in their shoes,
Consider, if you’ve taught the topic for years...
Consider, if new to you to do...

7. Reasons
2. To give students the info they need

8. Reasons 2. To give students the info they need
How? Handouts can give 10 times more material, but must mix info with other materials (Make sure handout has lots of free space)

9. Reasons
3. To cover the syllabus

10. Reasons 3. To cover the syllabus
How? In a meaningfully manner. Give the students time to reflect and revise. So stop teaching for the last 3 weeks and get students to reflect and revise.

11. Reasons
4. Give the student group a sense of identity

12. Reasons 4. Give the student group a sense of identity
How? Group work is vital

13. Reasons
5. Because it’s cost-effective - large groups

14. Reasons 5. Because it’s cost-effective - large groups
How? Instead of throwing out questions to students (as some may be intimidated) ask student to spend next 3 minutes writing down 3 most important ideas we’ve been talking about, and spend a minute comparing you’ve with your neighbour…look for 5 volunteers.
Rather than getting student to asks questions; at end of class collect on slips of paper and answer at start of next class or on-line on discussion board.

15. Reasons
6. To help map curriculum

16. Reasons 6. To help map curriculum
How? Signpost the course. Show the students the syllabus, included learning outcomes. Number the topics instead of bullet pointing them

17. Reasons
7. To see how the students are doing

18. Reasons 7. To see how the students are doing How? Look at their faces
How? Handout your slides, with first slide having questions about previous lecture - spend 5 minutes of lecture getting student to answer.

19. Reasons
8. To change student beliefs

20. Reasons 8. To change student beliefs
How? By sharing your experience + Expert views + Existing Theories + Other students ideas.
Make the student’s learning active, when students apply their ideas, it becomes their knowledge.

21. Reasons
9. To help students learn

22. Reasons 9. To help students learn
How? For a few minutes ask the students to reflect on HOW they are learning. Share with others their approaches, their triumphs and disasters.
How? Stop class for a few minutes and discuss their note-making techniques.
How? Ask student to write down 3 things they don’t yet know about a topic and want to learn…amalgamate lists and hand to lecturer

23. Reasons
10. To help students figure out what the lecturer is going to ask in the exam

24. Reasons
10. To help students figure out what the lecturer is going to ask in the exam
How? Students need to be more strategic about assessment, it is an intelligent response to their situation. But you just need to help them figure out your culture of assessment, not every little facet of it.

25. What can lecturers do? Get a notebook per course.
Include attendance sheets, handouts, slides, etc.
After each lecture
Note down errors in slides and handouts
Write down key points of lecture
Tricky issues
Good examples

26. What can lecturers do? Include questions after each lecture
What did I do best?
What should I avoid?
What surprised me?
What were the good student questions?
What couldn’t the students answer?

27. Instructional Design
Definition

28. Instructional Design
Maximise the effectiveness, efficiency and appeal of instruction and other learning experiences.
The process consists of determining the current state and needs of the learner, defining the end goal of instruction, and creating some "intervention" to assist in the transition.
The outcome of this instruction may be directly observable and scientifically measured or completely hidden and assumed.

29. Instructional Design
We can divide models of instructional design broadly into two categories
MARCO: Models which concern themselves with the design and planning of an entire module or programme
MICRO: Models which concern themselves with the design and planning of an individual lecture or teaching session

30. Models we’ve seen previously
Instructional Design
Models we’ve seen previously

31. Gagné’s Nine Events of Instruction
Micro

32. Gagné’s Nine Events of Instruction
Gain attention - Curiosity motivates students to learn.
Inform learners of objectives - These objectives should form the basis for assessment.
Stimulate recall of prior learning - Associating new information with prior knowledge can facilitate the learning process.
Present the content - This event of instruction is where the new content is actually presented to the learner.
Provide “learning guidance” - use of examples, non-examples, case studies, graphical representations, mnemonics, and analogies.
Elicit performance (practice) - Eliciting performance provides an opportunity for learners to confirm their correct understanding, and the repetition further increases the likelihood of retention.
Provide feedback - guidance and answers provided at this stage are called formative feedback.
Assess performance - take a final assessment.
Enhance retention and transfer to the job - Effective education will have a "performance" focus.
Micro

33. Reigeluth’s Elaboration Theory
Micro

34. Reigeluth’s Elaboration Theory
Organizing Course Structure: Single organisation for complete course
Simple to complex: start with simplest ideas, in the first lesson, and then add elaborations in subsequent lessons.
Within-lesson sequence: general to detailed, simple to complex, abstract to concrete.
Summarizers: content reviews presented in rule-example-practice format
Synthesizers: Presentation devices that help the learner integrate content elements into a meaningful whole and assimilate them into prior knowledge, e.g. a concept hierarchy, a procedural flowchart or decision table, or a cause-effect model .
Analogies: relate the content to learners' prior knowledge, use multiple analogies, especially with a highly divergent group of learners.
Cognitive strategies: variety of cues - pictures, diagrams, mnemonics, etc. - can trigger cognitive strategies needed for processing of material.
Learner control: Learners are encouraged to exercise control over both content and instructional strategy. Clear labelling and separation of strategy components facilitates effective learner control of those components.
Micro

35. The Classic Macro Model: Bloom’s Taxonomy
Instructional Design
The Classic Macro Model:
Bloom’s Taxonomy

36. Benjamin S. Bloom Born Feb 21, 1913 Died Sept 13, 1999
Born in Lansford, Pennsylvania.
Educational psychologist
Editor of “Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook 1: Cognitive Domain”

37. Bloom’s Taxonomy
In the 1950s Bloom helped developed a taxonomy of cognitive objectives in “Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook 1: Cognitive Domain”
Means of expressing qualitatively different kinds of thinking
Been adapted for classroom use as a planning tool and continues to be one of the most universally applied models
Provides a way to organise thinking skills into six levels, from the most basic to the more complex levels of thinking

38. Bloom’s Taxonomy

39. Bloom’s Taxonomy (Meaning)
Evaluation: compare and discriminate between ideas, assess value of theories, presentations make choices based on reasoned argument, verify value of evidence, recognize subjectivity
Synthesis: use old ideas to create new ones, generalize from given facts, relate knowledge from several areas, predict, draw conclusions
Analysis: seeing patterns, organization of parts, recognition of hidden meanings, identification of components
Application: use information use methods, concepts, theories in new situations, solve problems using required skills or knowledge
Comprehension: understanding information,grasp meaning, translate knowledge into new context
Knowledge: observation and recall of information,knowledge of dates, events, places knowledge of major ideas
Higher-order thinking

40. Bloom’s Taxonomy (Verbs)
Evaluation: appraise, argue, assess, attach, choose compare, defend estimate, judge, predict, rate, core, select, support, value
Synthesis: arrange, assemble, collect, compose, construct, create, design, develop, formulate, manage, organize, plan, prepare
Analysis: analyze, appraise, calculate, categorize, compare, contrast, criticize, differentiate, discriminate, distinguish, examine
Application: apply, choose, demonstrate, dramatize, employ, illustrate, interpret, operate, practice, schedule, sketch, solve, use
Comprehension: classify, describe, discuss, explain, express, identify, indicate, locate, recognize, report, restate, review
Knowledge: arrange, define, duplicate, label, list, memorize, name, order, recognize, relate, recall, repeat, reproduce state
Higher-order thinking

42. Learning Outcomes

43. Examples
Example Exam Paper 1
Example Exam Paper 2

44. Bloom’s Taxonomy Revised
In the 1990s Lorin Anderson, a former student of Bloom, led a new assembly which met for the purpose of updating the taxonomy, hoping to add relevance for 21st century students and teachers
Published in 2001, the revision includes several minor and major changes.
The revised version of the taxonomy is intended for a much broader audience.

45. Original Terms New Terms
Evaluation
Synthesis
Analysis
Application
Comprehension
Knowledge
Creating
Evaluating
Analysing
Applying
Understanding
Remembering

46. Bloom’s Taxonomy Revised
Creating: Generating new ideas, products, or ways of viewing things. Designing, constructing, planning, producing, inventing.  
Evaluating: Justifying a decision or course of action. Checking, hypothesising, critiquing, experimenting, judging  
Analysing: Breaking information into parts to explore understandings and relationships. Comparing, organising, deconstructing, interrogating, finding  
Applying: Using information in another familiar situation. Implementing, carrying out, using, executing  
Understanding: Explaining ideas or concepts. Interpreting, summarising, paraphrasing, classifying, explaining  
Remembering: Recalling information. Recognising, listing, describing, retrieving, naming, finding  
Higher-order thinking

47. Bloom’s Taxonomy Revised

48. Creating Evaluating Analysing Applying Understanding Remembering
Green Hat, Construction Key, SCAMPER, Ridiculous Key, Combination Key, Invention Key
Evaluating
Brick Wall Key, Decision Making Matrix, PMI, Prioritising.
Analysing
Yellow Hat, Black Hat, Venn Diagram, Commonality Key, Picture Key, Y Chart, Combination Key.
Applying
Blue Hat, Brainstorming, Different uses Key, Reverse Listing Key, Flow Chart.
Understanding
Graphic Organisers, Variations Key, Reverse Listing, PMI, Webs (Inspiration).
Remembering
White Hat, Alphabet Key, Graphic Organisers, Acrostic, Listing, Brainstorming, Question Key.

49. Instructional Design
Other Macro Models

50. ADDIE Model
The ADDIE model is used by instructional designers and training developers. It is composed of five phases
Analysis,
Design,
Development,
Implementation, and
Evaluation
Which represent a dynamic, flexible guideline for building effective training and performance support tools. This model attempts to save time and money by catching problems while they are still easy to fix.

51. ADDIE Model

52. ADDIE Model : A = Analysis
In analysis stage of ID process, want to find out:
Who are the learners or audience
Audience analysis
What is the goal or intended outcome
Goal analysis

53. ADDIE Model : D = Design Content of the course Steps of instruction
Subject matter analysis
Steps of instruction
Lesson planning-writing objectives
Type of media or presentation mode
Media selection

54. ADDIE Model : D = Development
Development of instruction
Generate lesson plans (different from lesson planning) and lesson materials.
Complete all media & materials for instruction, and supporting documents.
End result is a course or workshop ready for delivery.

55. ADDIE Model : I = Implementation
The delivery of the instruction.
Purpose is effective & efficient delivery of instruction.
Promote students’ understanding of material & objectives, and ensure transfer of knowledge.

56. ADDIE Model : E = Evaluation
Two related evaluations going on simultaneously in most ID situations.
Formative Evaluation
Summative Evaluation

57. ADDIE Model

58. The elusive origins of the ADDIE Model
Remarkably it appears that the ADDIE model wasn’t specifically developed by any single author but rather to have evolved
informally through oral tradition.
The ADDIE Model is merely a colloquial term used to describe a systematic approach to instructional development.

59. ASSURE model
Analyze learners’ characteristics, competencies, and learning styles
State objectives for what your lesson should accomplish (ABCD format—audience/behavior/condition/degree)
Select, modify, and design methods, media, and materials
Utilize methods, media and materials—implement the lesson
Require learner participation in lesson
Evaluate learner outcomes with objectives and revise as necessary
From “Instructional Media and Technologies for Learning” by Robert Heinich, Michael Molenda, James D. Russell, Sharon E. Smaldino

60. The ABCD Format
Audience: The audience is the group of individuals who are targeted for instruction. While at first this seems straight forward, many times employees will ask “will I get anything out of this training?” or “should I attend this training?” or “who is supposed to go to this training?” Without a clear-cut audience in mind, it is difficult to pinpoint exactly who gains from the training and who would be better served in a different class.
Behaviour: The behaviour element of the objective indicates the desired outcome of the particular learning event. The behaviour will be stated in the following form “will be able to detail properly” or “will be able to discuss the mechanism of action (MOA) with the doctor.” The behaviour is what you want the person to be able to do as a result of the training. It is important to clarify the behaviour because training programs can get off track when the desired outcome of the training activity is not clearly defined.
Condition: The term “condition” describes circumstances under which the behaviour should occur. An example would be “when calling on a doctor,” The condition describes a trigger for the desired behaviour.
Degree: The term “degree” represents how well the employee must perform to be considered acceptable. The degree of the objective is the measurable component. Measures can be expressed as level of productivity, quantity, quality, time, internal or external customer requirements, or other criteria gained from actual or anticipated work practices.
From “Instructional Technology - A Systematic Approach to Education” by Frederick G. Knirk, Kent L. Gustafson

61. Dick and Carey Model
The model was originally published in 1978 by Walter Dick and Lou Carey in their book entitled “The Systematic Design of Instruction”.
It champions a systems view of instruction as opposed to viewing instruction as a sum of isolated parts. The model addresses instruction as an entire system, focusing on the interrelationship between context, content, learning and instruction.

62. Dick and Carey Model Revise Instruction Conduct Instructional Analysis
Assess Need
to Identify
Goal(s)
Write
Performance
Objectives
Develop
Assessment
Instruments
Develop
Instructional
Strategy
Develop
And Select
Instructional
Materials
Design and
Conduct
Formative
Evaluation
Analyze
Learners and
Contexts
Design and
Conduct
Summative
Evaluation

63. ICARE model
Based on the Dick and Carey Model and pioneered by San Diego State University in 1997, the model has found a place in the higher education sector.

64. ICARE model Introduce learners to what is to be learned
Content of lesson is presented to learner involving active participation
Apply new knowledge and skills with practical activities
Reflect on what has been learned
Extend learning of lesson by providing alternative resources

65. ICARE model

66. Tripp and Bichelmeyer
Design that occurs in a rapid prototyping environment, when prototyping is specifically used as a method for instructional design.
The analysis of needs and content depends in part upon the knowledge that is gained by actually building and using a prototype instructional system.

67. Tripp and Bichelmeyer
Tripp,Steven, Bichelmeyer,Barbara, Rapid prototyping: An alternative instructional design strategy, Educational Technology Research and Development, 38, 1, 3/18/1990, Pages 31-44

68. Tripp and Bichelmeyer
Diagram needs additions

69. Other Macro Models
There are many other macro models of instructional design, we won’t go into them, but I’ve included a few pictures for your viewing pleasure.

70. Hannafin & Peck Model

71. Knirk & Gustafson Model

72. Jerrold Kemp Model

73. Gerlach-Ely Model

74. Ausubel’s Assimilation Theory

75. Instructional Design
More in the Micro

76. Component Display Theory
Component Display Theory (CDT) classifies learning along two dimensions:
content
facts, concepts, procedures, and principles
performance
remembering, using, generalities
The theory specifies that instruction is more effective to the extent that it contains all necessary primary and secondary forms. Thus, a complete lesson would consist of objective followed by some combination of rules, examples, recall, practice, feedback, helps and mnemonics appropriate to the subject matter and learning task. Indeed, the theory suggests that for a given objective and learner, there is a unique combination of presentation forms that results in the most effective learning experience.

77. Component Display Theory

78. Component Display Theory

79. Active Learning
an umbrella term that refers to several models of instruction that focus the responsibility of learning on learners.
Think-Pair-Share
The Pause Procedure
Fact Rounding
Network Phasing
Learning Cell
Active Writing
Team Quizzes

80. Active Learning Think-Pair-Share
learners take a short amount of time (e.g. one minute) to ponder the previous lesson,
Then they discuss it with one or more of their peers,
finally to share it with the class as part of a formal discussion.
It is during this formal discussion that the instructor should clarify misconceptions. However students need a background in the subject matter to converse in a meaningful way. Therefore a "think pair share" exercise is useful in situations where learners can identify and relate what they already know to others.

81. Active Learning The Pause Procedure
We know that even the most motivated student's concentration declines after minutes. Teaching often requires students to play passive roles and assume all students need the same information at the same pace. By using three two-minute pauses during the lecture (about every 13 to 18 minutes), the students are given the chance to clarify, assimilate, and retain the information presented during the prior mini-class. The pause procedure can be used as a vehicle to carry into the traditional class a variety of active and collaborative learning structures.

82. Active Learning The Pause Procedure
Examples of things do to during the 'pause' include;
Ask students to turn to their neighbour and summarize the main ideas the instructor has just presented (e.g., List three major points in the last lecture and one point you're confused on).
Ask students to read over their notes of the materials covered today and put a question mark beside anything they want either clarification on or more details on.
Ask students to take out a blank sheet of paper, pose a question (either specific or open-ended), and give them one (or perhaps two - but not many more) minute(s) to respond. Some sample questions include: "What are the countries in Europe?", "What are 'Human Rights'?", "What is the different between adverbs and adjectives?" and so on (“one minute paper”).
Ask students "What was the 'muddiest point' in today's class?" or, perhaps, you might be more specific, asking, for example: "What (if anything) do you find unclear about the lesson?" listing topics.
Ask students to report their reactions to some facet of the course material - i.e., to provide an emotional or evaluative response to the material.

83. Active Learning Fact Rounding
The Fact rounding technique works as follows, towards the end of a lesson the students are asked to recall one fact from the material covered. Another student should not repeat a fact already mentioned and the activity should continue until all the lesson material has been covered.

84. Active Learning Network Phasing
The activity of Phasing starts off with three groups in its first Phase. These groups will each be assigned a particular section of a larger problem. All groups are then given a specific amount of time to work on either fact finding or a solution or both. The time frame most suitable for Phasing is two hours but the approach taken can vary depending on the needs of the particular problem. After a given period of time the group elect a leader to present their findings. From this short presentation the students will learn about the different sections of the larger problem.
Phase 2 begins with the original groups being split in two halves and those halves coming to form two new groups. This formation ensures that all students get exposure to all areas of the larger problem. The two new groups will have a new solution or facts to find. Phase 2 develops in the same way as Phase 1 and the elected leader of each group present the findings.
Phase 3 takes the form of a group discussion bringing the findings of Phase 2 together to form the solution to the larger problem. This discussion should be lead by the teacher to ensure the student’s findings are correct and to give suggested improvements.

85. Active Learning Learning Cell
A learning cell is a process of learning where two students alternate asking and answering questions on commonly read materials. To prepare for the assignment, the students will read the assignment and write down questions that they have about the reading. At the next class meeting, the teacher will randomly put the students in pairs. The process begins by designating one student from each group to begin by asking one of their questions to the other. Once the two students discuss the question. The other student will ask a question and they will alternate accordingly. During this time, the teacher is going around the class from group to group giving feedback and answering questions. This system is also referred to as a “student dyad” (or pair).

86. Active Learning Active Writing
The Active Writing technique is used as follows;
at the end of the lesson students are asked to submit questions based on the material covered.
These questions are used as an introduction to the next lesson.
The purpose of this activity is to ensure that the students will have their questions answered and to reflect on the material. This activity is different to the other because it is spreads across two separate lessons. This technique can also be used to gauge students’ understanding of a subject based on the questions they submit.

87. Active Learning Team Quizzes
The team quizzes activity divides the class into two groups (Group A and Group B). The groups are given an amount of time to generate questions on the material covered. The teacher aims Group A’s questions to Group B and visa versa. If the group give the correct answer a point is awarded, otherwise the other group must give the answer. The purpose of this approach is to promote the generation of well thought out questions and answers.

88. Six Thinking Hats

89. Six Hats Instructional Model
BLUE:
Introduction and overview of topic
WHITE:
Facts and Figures about the Topic
YELLOW:
Positive outcomes of Topic
BLACK:
Negative outcomes of Topic
GREEN:
Interesting outcomes of Topic
RED:
Personal, emotional and people-oriented aspects of topic
Review of new facts uncovered
Summary and finish up

90. Other Micro Techniques
Learning by teaching
Problem-based learning
Project-based learning
Inquiry-based learning
Action learning
Progressive inquiry
Service-learning

91. Quiz Direct Instruction Student’s Disposition to learn
Put these in order of importance on student achievement;
Direct Instruction
Student’s Disposition to learn
Student’s Prior Cognitive Ability
Instructional Quality
Feedback

92. Quiz 1. Feedback 2. Student’s Prior Cognitive Ability
Put these in order of importance on student achievement;
1. Feedback
2. Student’s Prior Cognitive Ability
3. Instructional Quality
4. Direct Instruction
5. Student’s Disposition to learn

93. Quiz 1. Feedback 2. Student’s Prior Cognitive Ability
Lecturer influence
Student influence
Put these in order of importance on student achievement;
1. Feedback
2. Student’s Prior Cognitive Ability
3. Instructional Quality
4. Direct Instruction
5. Student’s Disposition to learn