1. Late Adulthood: Cognitive Development
Chapter Twenty-Four
Late Adulthood:
Cognitive Development
PowerPoints prepared by Cathie Robertson, Grossmont College
Revised by Jenni Fauchier, Metropolitan Community College

2. Changes in Information Processing
Schaie’s study found decline in all 5 primary mental abilities
verbal meaning
spatial orientation
inductive reasoning
number ability
word fluency

3. Input: Sensing and Perceiving
With age it takes longer for information to register in sensory register—holds incoming sensory information for a split second after it is received
small reductions in sensitivity and power
sensory receptors (eyes, ears, etc.) now less acute
deficits can be compensated for if person is aware of reduction

4. Input: Sensing and Perceiving, cont.
However, for information to reach perception, must cross sensory threshold
senses must pick up relevant sensations
this is where significant decline occurs
problem becomes serious because it is insidious
person is unaware of things not seen or heard
after time may miss substantial amount of information

5. Working Memory Working, or Short-Term Memory
processing component through which current, conscious mental activity occurs
Two Interrelated Functions
serves as temporary information storage
processes information held in mind

6. Older adults: smaller working memory capacity than younger adults
Working Memory, cont.
Older adults: smaller working memory capacity than younger adults
multitasking especially difficult; focusing helps to compensate
Explanations for Decline
inability to screen out distractions and inhibit irrelevant thoughts
decline in total mental energy

7. Long-Term Memory Knowledge Base
long-term storehouse of information and memories
evidence suggests memory for vocabulary remains unimpaired and can increase with age
areas of expertise relatively unimpaired
Source amnesia—forgetting who or what was source of fact, idea, or conversation
increasingly common in late adulthood

8. Control Processes
Part of the information-processing system that regulates analysis and flow of information
e.g., selective attention, retrieval strategies, storage mechanisms, logical analysis
Older adults unable to gather and consider all data relevant to logical analysis and decision making
rather, they rely on prior knowledge, rule-of-thumb, general principles

9. Control Processes, cont.
Use of retrieval strategies also declines with age
possible to learn better retrieval strategies, but does not overcome age-related problems in memory and control

10. Explicit and Implicit Memory
Explicit memory—involves facts, definitions, data, concepts, etc.
learned consciously through deliberate repetition and review
because of rehearsal, usually easily retrieved
Implicit memory—information that is an unconscious or automatic memory such as habits, emotional responses, routines
contents not deliberately memorized

11. Resistance
Rather than direct result of aging, decline may be result of
refusal to guess
deliberate choice
resistance to change
reluctance to use memory aids

12. Reasons for Age-Related Changes
Causes of declines in cognitive functioning
primary aging
secondary aging
ageism
either reflected in self-perception
or embedded in way scientists measure cognition

13. Primary Aging Brain Slowdown
reduced production of neurotransmitters that allow nerve impulses to jump across synapse from one neuron to another
decrease in total volume of neural fluid
decrease in speed of cerebral blood flow
slower pace of activation of various parts of cortex
Slowdown may affect learning new material, but the types of thinking not involving speed are less affected

14. Compensation Strategies of Older Adults
employ memory tricks
use written reminders
allow for more time to solve problems
repeat confusing instructions
Older adults slower but not less accurate than younger adults

15. Terminal Decline
Overall slowdown of cognitive abilities in days or months before death
marked loss of intellectual power
results not from age—rather from being close to death
Change in cognitive ability and increased depression often precede visible worsening of health

16. Secondary Aging Several diseases impair cognition among aging
dementia, hypertension, diabetes, arteriosclerosis, and diseases affecting lungs
Lifestyle habits contribute to these diseases
poor eating, smoking, lack of exercise

17. Brain deterioration due to poor lifestyle habits can be halted by
Secondary Aging, cont.
Brain deterioration due to poor lifestyle habits can be halted by
improved nutrition and exercise
various drugs, e.g., long-term use of anti-inflammatory steroids
aspirin and ibuprofen

18. Attitudes of the Elderly
Influence of Expectations and Stereotyping
people aged 50–70 overestimate their early adulthood memory skills, which can lead to loss of confidence that impairs present memory
confidence in memory skills also eroded when others interpret hesitancy as sign of impaired memory

19. Ageism in Research
Laboratory research may favor younger adults, rather than older because
older adults at intellectual best early in day at home
Experiments on memory biased toward people used to being tested
in school setting, young adults regularly memorize information not immediately relevant to daily life
older adults unpracticed at, and may be suspicious of, exams

20. Beyond Ageism Laboratory research on memory
uniformly reports some memory loss in late adulthood
but few older adults consider memory loss significant handicap
Compensate by using reminders
the more realistic the circumstances, the better older people remember
supportive environments aid memory

21. Dementia
Dementia—irreversible loss of intellectual functioning caused by organic brain disease
Symptoms
confusion and forgetfulness
More common with age
More than 70 diseases can cause dementia
Difficult to diagnose

22. Alzheimer’s Disease
Disorder characterized by proliferation of plaques and tangles
abnormalities in cerebral cortex that destroy brain functioning
Plagues formed from protein called B-amyloid
Tangles are twisted mass of protein threads within cells

23. Risk Factors for Alzheimer’s
Gender, ethnicity, and especially age affect odds of developing it
women at greater risk than men
more common in North America and Europe than in Japan and China
less common among Asian Americans than European Americans

24. Risk Factors for Alzheimer’s, cont.
Age is chief risk factor
incidence rises from about 1 in 100 at age 65 to 1 in 5 over age 85
Alzheimer’s is partly genetic
ALZHS—variant of the ApoE gene (allele 4)—increases risk
in United States, 20 percent inherit ApoE4 from one parent; thus, have a 50/50 chance of developing disease by age 80

25. Risk Factors for Alzheimer’s, cont.
Factors decreasing risk
allele ApoE2 dissipates protein that causes plaques
lifestyle habits (e.g. physical exercise and mental activity) said to be protective

26. Stages: From Confusion to Death
general forgetfulness
Stage 2
more general confusion
noticeable differences in concentration and short-term memory
speech can be aimless or repetitive

27. Stages: From Confusion to Death, cont.
memory loss becomes truly dangerous
no longer able to take care of own basic needs
Stage 4
need for full-time care as cannot care for self or respond normally
occasionally irrationally angry or paranoid

28. Stages: From Confusion to Death, cont.
completely mute
unable to respond with any action or emotion
death usually occurs 10 to 15 years after onset

29. Many Strokes Vascular Dementia or Multi-Infarct Dementia
characterized by sporadic, progressive, loss of intellectual functioning
temporary obstruction of blood vessels prevent sufficient supply of blood to brain; commonly called a stroke, or ministroke
common cause is arteriosclerosis
different progression than that of Alzheimer’s

30. Subcortical Dementias
Begin with motor ability impairments and later produce cognitive impairment
Parkinson’s disease most common
degeneration of neurons in area of brain that produces dopamine, neurotransmitter essential to normal brain functioning
majority of newly diagnosed over 60

31. Subcortical Dementias, cont.
Other Dementias
Huntington’s disease
multiple schlerosis
Toxins and infectious agents can cause dementia
syphilis
AIDS
psychoactive drugs

32. Reversible Dementia From Overmedication From Undernourishment
drug management difficult for older adults living at home who typically consume 5 or more different drugs a day
From Undernourishment
can cause vitamin deficiencies which lead to
depression
confusion
cognitive decline

33. Psychological Illness
Anxiety, antisocial personality and bipolar disorders, schizophrenia, depression
less common among the elderly
higher mortality rates for people with those illnesses
illnesses themselves become less severe in later life
Mental illness can produce what seems like dementia but is not
e.g., depression, anxiety
careful diagnosis can differentiate

34. New Cognitive Development in Later Life
Theorists believe older adults can develop
new interests
patterns of thought
deeper wisdom
Aesthetic Sense and Creativity
many older people gain appreciation of nature and of aesthetic experience
as for people already creative, they generally continue to be productive; often experiencing renewed inspiration

35. The Life Review
Many older people do a life review—the examination of one’s own past life
helps older people connect their own lives with the future as they tell their stories to younger generations
renews links with past generations, as older people remember ancestors
process is more social than solitary
crucial to self-worth that others recognize its significance

36. Wisdom Are older people typically wiser? But first, what is wisdom?
broad, practical, comprehensive approach to life’s problems, reflecting timeless truths
expertise in life fundamentals, permitting exceptional insight and judgment in complex and uncertain matters
Research found little correlation between wisdom and age, although attributes like humor, perspective, altruism may increase