1. BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION THEORIES

2. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy
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CBT is a psychological treatment that addresses the interactions between how we think, feel and behave.
The development and administration of CBT have been closely guided by research.
Evidence now supports the effectiveness of CBT for many common mental disorders.
CBT is a process of teaching, coaching, and reinforcing positive behaviours.
CBT helps people to identify cognitive patterns or thoughts and emotions that are linked with behaviours.

3. 1) Classical Conditioning– Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

4. Background Russian physiologist/scientist (Learning Theorist)
His initial focus was on the physiology of digestion, which led him to create a science of conditioned reflexes.
Pavlov paid special attention to the phenomenon of “psychic secretion”, which is caused by food stimuli at a distance from the animal.

5. Key Terms
Conditioning – behavioral process whereby a response becomes more frequent or more predictable in a given environment as a result of reinforcement - typically being a stimulus or reward for a desired response

6. What is a Stimulus? Something that elicits a response
That which can evoke a response or has an influence on a system to act.
Examples?
Smells
Words
Actions
Noises
Memories

7. Pavlov
Rang bell before feeding dogs & soon dogs began to salivate at sound of bell alone
The dogs had been conditioned to salivate in response to the new stimulus (bell)

8. Copy the chart in your notebook:
Acronym
Name
Definition
Food
Example
Pavlov’s Example
UCS
UCR NS CS CR

9. Key Terms: Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
Into your chart
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
Unconditionally, naturally, and automatically triggers a response
For example, when you smell one of your favorite foods, you may immediately feel very hungry. In this example, the smell of the food is the unconditioned stimulus.
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
The unlearned response that occurs naturally in response to the unconditioned stimulus
In the example, the feeling of hunger in response to the smell of food is the unconditioned response.

10. Conditioned Response (CR)
Into your chart
Neutral Stimulus (NS)
A stimulus that is not connected or associated with the unconditioned stimulus, but is paired with the UCS to create meaning and conditioning
Neutral Stimulus (NS) always becomes the Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Example: Whistle – see example below for CS
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response.
Suppose that when you smelled your favorite food, you also heard the sound of a whistle. While the whistle is unrelated to the smell of the food, if the sound of the whistle was paired multiple times with the smell, the sound would eventually trigger the conditioned response. In this case, the sound of the whistle is the conditioned stimulus.
Conditioned Response (CR)
The conditioned response is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus.
The conditioned response would be feeling hungry when you heard the sound of the whistle.

11. Pavlov’s Example: (Not Conditioned): UCS = food UCR = salivation
Into your chart
(Not Conditioned):
UCS = food UCR = salivation
(Process of Conditioning):
UCS (food) + NS (bell) UCR = salivation
(Conditioned):
NS becomes CS, therefore,
CS = bell CR = salivation

13. As you just learned, repeatedly pairing a CS with a UCS will produce a CR.
However…
After conditioning has taken place, repeatedly presenting the CS without the UCS will make the CR weaker and eventually make it disappear causing...
Extinction

14. Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov’s term to describe the theory that animals could be trained in a particular way to respond to a given stimulus
Can be connected to how humans learn as well…

15. John B. Watson:
Early Classical Conditioning with Humans
John B. Watson further extended Pavlov’s work and applied it to human beings. In 1921, Watson studied Albert, an 11 month old infant child. The goal of the study was to condition Albert to become afraid of a white rat by pairing the white rat with a very loud, jarring noise.  At first, Albert showed no sign of fear when he was presented with rats, but once the rat was repeatedly paired with the loud noise, Albert developed a fear of rats. It could be said that the loud noise induced fear. The implications of Watson’s experiment suggested that classical conditioning could cause some phobias in humans.

16. Remember Baby Albert?
Classical Conditioning was also proven by behavioural psychologist John Watson in 1920.
He put an 11-month old boy, Albert, in a room with a white rat. As Albert approached the rat, Watson would make loud noises with a metal bar (NS).
He soon learned to associate the rat (and any other rat, as well as the colour white) with fear. (CS-CR)
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17. Fun Examples of Classical Conditioning with Humans
The Office - Pavlov's dog on Vimeo
Pavlov’s Bar: fc
What are the UCR and UCS in each example?
What is the NS in each example?
What are the CS and CR in each example?

18. 2) Operant Conditioning – BF Skinner (1904 – 1990)

19. Background – American behavioural psychologist (Learning Theorist)
Conducted learning experiments on rats and pigeons, believed results could be applied to human behaviour
His experiments helped him develop his theory of operant conditioning
Learning can be programmed by whatever consequence follows a particular behaviour

20. Only bolded information
Operant Conditioning
Only bolded information
B.F. Skinner’s term for the learning theory that uses praise and punishment to teach new or appropriate skills and behaviours or to extinguish undesirable ones
Learn to behave in a certain manner through operating on a person’s need to avoid pain and seek pleasure
Humans can learn through praise or punishment

21. Key Terms: Reinforcement and Punishment
Consequences increase the probability of the behavior – want the positive behaviour to continue
Tangibles: food, drink
Favorite activities: visiting family, watching TV, dancing, listening to music, singing
Attention: positive/negative verbals, physical contact
Social reinforcers: praise, positive feedback
Punishment
Consequences decrease the probability of the behavior – want to discourage negative behaviour
Verbal reprimand
Time out
Removing a privilege

22. Reinforcement
POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT increases behavior by the addition of a desirable event when the behavior occurs.
Praise
Edibles
Money
NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT increases behavior by the removal of an aversive event when the behavior occurs.
Excuse from chores
Escape from a crowd
Stops pain

23. Punishment
POSITIVE PUNISHMENT decreases behavior by the addition of an aversive event when the behavior occurs.
Verbal reprimand
Increased work
NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT decreases behavior by removing a desirable event.
Time out
Removing Privileges
Fines

24. + - In Summary… + Reinforcement:
Optional +
+ Reinforcement:
Increases behavior by adding something good.
+ Punishment:
Decreases behavior by adding something bad. -
- Reinforcement:
Increases behavior by taking away something bad.
- Punishment: Decreases behavior by taking away something good.

25. Skinner in Action Skinner’s Experiment – Pigeon Conditioning
Skinner today
Operant Conditioning – YouTube – Big Bang Theory
Rick Mercer: Behaviour Modification – YouTube

26. Operant Conditioning Key Term: Schedules of Reinforcement –
Schedules of reinforcement are an important component of the learning process. When and how often we reinforce a behavior can have a dramatic impact on the strength and rate of the response.

27. Continuous Reinforcement
In continuous reinforcement, the desired behavior is reinforced every single time it occurs.
Generally, this schedule is best used during the initial stages of learning in order to create a strong association between the behavior and the response.
Ex: Toilet Training a Child – giving a treat each time they use the potty

28. Partial Reinforcement
In partial reinforcement, the response is reinforced only part of the time.
Learned behaviors are acquired more slowly with partial reinforcement, but the response is more resistant to extinction – behaviour will last longer.

29. Key Terms:
Interval – based on amount of time (i.e. seconds, minutes, days…) that the reinforcement occurs
Ratio – based on number of times one does a behaviour
Fixed – reinforcement happens after the same amount of time elapses (i.e. every 10 minutes or every 10th behaviour)
Variable – occurs at random/unpredictable time periods or amount of times an individual accomplishes a behaviour (1, 3, 4, 7, 12 minutes or behaviours)
Now let’s put them together…

30. 4 schedules of partial reinforcement:
Fixed-ratio schedules - are those where a response is reinforced only after a specified number of responses.
Variable-ratio schedules - occur when a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses.
Fixed-interval schedules - are those where the first response is rewarded only after a specified amount of time has elapsed.
Variable-interval schedules - occur when a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed.

31. Fixed ratio schedule (FR) - delivers reinforcement after every (n)th response
Example: Rat reinforced with food after every 5 bar-presses in a Skinner box – FR5
Example: Used car dealer gets a $1000 bonus for each 10 cars sold on the lot – FR10
Variable ratio schedule (VR) – a reinforcement schedule in which the number of responses necessary to produce reinforcement varies from trial to trial.
A VR schedule of VR4 means that if one averaged the number of reinforcers, every fourth desired response was reinforced.
Example: VR4 = first pellet delivered on 2 bar presses, second pellet delivered on 6 bar presses, third pellet 4 bar presses ( = 12, 12÷3 (# of trials)= 25% or 1 in 4 chance of receiving pellet)
Example: slot machines (because, though the chance of someone of hitting the jackpot is constant/always present, the number of lever presses needed to hit the jackpot is variable)

32. Fixed interval (FI) – reinforced after every (n)th amount of time
Example: FI15 = rat is reinforced for the first bar press after 15 seconds passes since the last reinforcement
Variable interval (VI) – reinforced on an average every (n)th amount of time. The 'n' is an average.
Example: checking your or pop quizzes
Example: Going fishing—you might catch a fish after 10 minutes, then have to wait an hour, then have to wait 18 minutes – (you catch 3 fish, 1 after 35 minutes, 1 after 60 minutes, and 1 after 75 minutes. Average is = 170 ÷ 3 = 56.6 Therefore, the VI value is minutes.

33. 3) Albert Bandura – Social Learning Theory (Observational Learning Theory)

34. Social Learning Theory
Albert Bandura’s (1977) social learning theory is based on the idea that:
We learn from our interactions with others in a social context. Separately, by observing the behaviors of others, people develop similar behaviors.

35. Sometimes certain behaviours are best learned through observation and imitation
Social learning can take place even if a considerable amount of time has passed since the behaviour was first observed
Performing an observed behaviour depends on whether we respect or like the model and what consequences the model experiences from performing the behaviour

36. Albert Bandura’s 4 processes :
Attention
Pay attention to behaviour of others
Retention
Store mental representations of what you observe in your memory
Reproduction
Convert your stored memory into action
Including physical capabilities, self- observation of reproduction, accuracy of feedback
Motivation
You must be motivated in order to practise the skill
Have to believe the skill is useful or important to you

37. Extension of Social Learning Theory
4) Trial and Error
Extension of Social Learning Theory

38. Trial and Error
It is possible to learn new behaviours or change behaviours through personal experience, or trial and error
Attempt to learn a new behaviour and learn from our mistakes  practicing to reduce error

39. 5) Systematic Desensitization/Exposure Therapy

40. Key Term
Counter-conditioning - a process used in behavioral therapy in which a learned response is replaced by an alternative response that is less disruptive
Learning a new conditioned behaviour to replace an undesirable one

41. Systematic Desensitization
A type of counter-conditioning that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli
Commonly used to treat phobias
Believed you cannot be simultaneously anxious and relaxed therefore if you can repeatedly relax when facing anxiety- provoking stimuli, you can gradually eliminate your anxiety  process is gradual
First create a hierarchy of the anxiety-provoking situation (from least-feared to most-feared)

42. Systematic Desensitization cont’d
Psychologist would use progressive muscle relaxation to train you to relax one muscle at a time
Whenever anxiety is induced, the individual provides a cue to the psychologist who has the individual go back to relaxation
Relaxed state used to desensitize the person to each imagined situation on the hierarchy followed by practice in real-life situations

43. 6) Aversive Conditioning

44. Aversive Conditioning
A type of counter-conditioning that associates an unpleasant state with an unwanted behaviour
Example: nail-biting  paint fingernails with poor-tasting nail polish
Also referred to as aversion therapy, a technique used in behaviour therapy to reduce the appeal of behaviours one wants to eliminate by associating them with physical or psychological discomfort.
In aversive conditioning, the client is exposed to an unpleasant stimulus while engaging in the targeted behaviour, the goal being to create an aversion to it. In adults, aversive conditioning is often used to combat addictions such as smoking or alcoholism. One common method is the administration of a nausea-producing drug...
Often used in combination with other treatment/therapy

45. 7) Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

46. Main Ideas -
American psychologist best know for his analysis of human needs
These basic needs, which he organized into a hierarchy, range from basic survival through the need for security, love and esteem
He argues when we have satisfied the need at one level of the hierarchy, rather than become satisfied overall, we tend to move on and try to satisfy the need at the next level
We are able to move up and down the levels – we do not remain at one level consistently once we reach it

47. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

48. Self Actualization
Highest level there is self-actualization - people who are able to dedicate themselves to serving others
There are very few who reach this level, they are secure, loved, and loving individuals who are able to dedicate themselves to serving others, believing that all humans share common bonds – e.g. Mother Teresa

49. 8) ABC Model of Behaviour Modification
Antecedent-Behavior-Consequence

50. Key Terms:
The A stands for antecedents.  What is going on just before the behavior occurs?
The setting, situation, contact that immediately precedes a behavior)
The B stands for the behavior. The focus is on behavior which is observable. Observable and objective – not subjective, not an emotion)
The C stands for consequences.  The questions are asked:  What was the reaction immediately following the behavior?  How was the behavior reinforced/treated?

51. Rationale of ABC Model
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Using the ABC model is an effective way to understand why a behavior happens.
Being able to look at several ABC data sheets provides a brief ‘snapshot’ of what is going on when an individual engages in a particular behavior.
It enables us to see what is going on in the environment before the behavior that might trigger it, and what happens after the behavior that might maintain it.

52. Autism Example: http://www.autism-help.org/story-ABA- autism.htm
Read as a class
In your notes, briefly explain:
Objectivity vs Subjectivity
How the ABC Model applies to a child with Autism
Principles of Behaviour
How to Choose a Reinforcer

53. 9) Goal Setting

54. Goal setting involves remaining committed to an established objective.
It allows the individual to have an interest in changing their behaviour by setting attainable and meaningful goals for their progress
Goal setting replaces undesirable behaviors (e.g., behaviors in conflict with the goal) with activities and behaviors that are in keeping with the agenda of the modification program.

55. 10) Imposing Environmental Limitations

56. Imposing Environmental Limitations-
In this technique, elements or stimuli in the environment are reduced or removed to stop and prevent undesirable behavior patterns from emerging.
As an example, removing pastries or processed foods from access to an exercise group encourages more positive and healthy foods.

57. 11) Theory of Planned Behaviour

58. Explains the link between attitudes and behaviours
It essentially proposes a model for how and why human action is guided by trying to understand the motivational forces behind their behaviour

59. . Why we might individuals make certain choices?
The model highlights what influences a persons decisions, and attempts to reveal The model suggests that in order to predict whether a person intends to do something, we need to know:
Whether the person is in favour of doing it (attitude);
How much the person feels social pressure to do it (subjective norm);
Whether the person feels in control of the action in question (perceived behavioural control).
If we can understand the attitudes of individuals and what influences the choices they make, there is a greater chance of influencing them to change their behaviours.