2. MOTIVASI, KEPUASAN KERJA & JOB INVOLVEMENT PERTEMUAN 12 & 13
Matakuliah : L0064 / Psikologi Industri & Organisasi 1
Tahun : 2007 / 2008
MOTIVASI, KEPUASAN KERJA & JOB INVOLVEMENT PERTEMUAN 12 & 13

3. Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you should be able to
Explain the content theories of motivation, including achievement, needs hierarch, motivator-hygiene, and job-characteristics theories
Explain the process theories of motivation, including expectancy, equity, and goal-setting theories
Understand job satisfaction, its measurement, its relationship to job performance, and the mediating effect of personal characteristics
Describe the personal impact of job loss
Apply motivation theories to predict the effect of pay equity issues, merit pay, and wage-incentive systems
Compare and contrast job involvement and job commitment
See pg. 125 of the Instructor’s Resource Manual.

4. Theories of Motivation
Content theories
Focus on the importance of work itself, dealing with the specific needs that motivate and direct behavior
Process theories
Deal with the cognitive processes we use in making decisions and choices about our work
See pg. 222.

5. Content Theories of Motivation
Achievement motivation theory
Needs-hierarchy theory
ERG theory
Motivator-hygiene (two-factor) theory
Job characteristics theory
See pp

6. Achievement Motivation Theory McClelland (1961)
Emphasizes the need to accomplish something, to do a good job, and to be the best
Three major characteristics of those with high need for achievement
Want to assume responsibility for solving problems
Tend to take calculated risks and set moderate, attainable goals
Need continuing recognition and feedback so they will know how well they are doing
See pp

7. Needs Hierarchy Theory Maslow (1970)
Human needs are arranged in a strict hierarchy of importance
Once we satisfy our lower-order needs, we can pay attention to our higher-level needs
Physiological
Safety
Belonging and love
Esteem
Self-actualization
See pp

8. Motivator-Hygiene Theory Herzberg (1966)
Often referred to as the two-factor theory
Explains work motivation and job satisfaction in terms of job duties and features of the workplace
Meeting Motivator needs produces satisfaction
Failure to meet Hygiene needs produces dissatisfaction
Job enrichment is an effort to expand jobs to increase the opportunity to satisfy motivator needs
See pg. 225.

9. Motivator-Hygiene Theory Herzberg (1966)
Motivator needs are internal to the work and include responsibility, achievement, recognition, advancement, career development, and growth
Challenging work leads to satisfaction, but it’s absence does not necessarily lead to job dissatisfaction
See pg. 225.

10. Motivator-Hygiene Theory Herzberg (1966)
Hygiene needs are external to the job tasks and involves features of the work environment: company policy, supervision, interpersonal relations, working conditions and salary
When hygiene needs are not met, the result is dissatisfaction; when they are met, the result is an absence of dissatisfaction
Job enrichment is an effort to expand the scope of the job to give employees a greater role in planning, performing, and evaluating their work
See pp

11. Motivator-Hygiene Theory Herzberg (1966)
Job Enrichment
Remove some management controls and make people accountable and responsible for their work
Create complete work units where possible
Provide regular and continuous feedback
Encourage employees to take on new tasks or become experts in old ones
The goals of job enrichment are to increase personal growth, fulfill needs for achievement and responsibility, and provide recognition
See pg. 226.

12. Job Characteristics Theory Hackman & Oldham (1976)
Links specific job characteristics with psychological conditions that lead to greater motivation, performance, and satisfaction for employees who have a high growth need
Core job characteristics:
Skill variety
Task identity
Task significance
Autonomy
Feedback
Motivation
Performance
Satisfaction
High growth need
See pp

13. Job Characteristics Theory Hackman & Oldham (1976)
Elements of Job Design
Form larger work units from smaller, specialized tasks
Arrange tasks in meaningful work units to make the worker responsible for an identifiable unit
Give workers responsibility for direct contact with clients and end users
Give workers control over tasks
Arrange for workers to regularly learn how well they are performing on the job
See pp

14. Job Characteristics Theory Hackman & Oldham (1976)
Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS)
A self-report inventory that measures three aspects of the Job Characteristics theory:
Employee’s perceptions of job characteristics
Employee’s level of growth need
Employee’s satisfaction
Should also consider cognitive demand and production responsibility
See pg. 227.

15. Process Theories of Motivation
Valence-instrumentality-expectancy theory (VIE)
Equity theory
Goal-setting theory
See pp

16. Expectancy Theory Vroom (1964)
Valence-instrumentality-expectancy theory (VIE) states that people make choices based on their expectations that certain rewards will follow from certain behaviors
Employees will perform at the level that gives the greatest payoff or benefit
The worth of the reward varies individually
Effort = expectancy x instrumentality x valence
See pp

17. Expectancy Theory Vroom (1964)
Employees must decide whether they expect job behaviors to have a high probability of leading to a particular outcome
Instrumentality
Employees must determine whether that outcome will be instrumental in leading to other outcomes
Valence
Employees must decide whether those outcomes have sufficient psychological value to motivate them to behave in a certain way
See pg. 228.

18. Equity Theory Adams (1965)
Work motivation is influenced by our perceptions of fairness of treatment
We calculate the ratio of our outcome to input and compare it with what we believe are the ratios of our co-workers
Experience inequity if we get less than others
In presence of inequity we are motivated to do something to reestablish balance
See pg. 230.

19. Equity Theory Adams (1965) Three response patterns to inequity
Benevolent
Satisfied when they are under-rewarded compared with co-workers
Equity sensitive
Believe everyone should be fairly rewarded
Entitled
People believe that everything they receive is their just due
See pg. 230.

20. Goal-Setting Theory Locke (1968)
Level of motivation on the job is determined by individual desire to achieve a particular goal
Goal represents what we intend to do at given time in the future
Setting specific and difficult goals can motivate our behavior
Warning: Difficult goals may stimulate our motivation to achieve at the expense of other behaviors, such as helping our colleagues
See pp

21. Goal-Setting Theory Locke (1968)
Individual goal commitment
the strength of our determination to reach our goal
Goal commitment is influenced by
External factors: authority, peer influence, and external rewards
Interactive factors: competition and the opportunity to participate in setting goals
Internal factors: self-administered rewards, expectations of success, need for achievement, type-A behavior, self-esteem, internal locus of control
See pp

22. Job Satisfaction
Positive and negative feelings and attitudes about our job
Most frequently studied IV in I-O Psychology
People who have positive attitudes toward their work are likely to have positive feelings about their personal and family life
There is a positive and reciprocal relationship between job and life satisfaction
General life satisfaction may be the more influential
See pp

23. Measures of Job Satisfaction
Job Descriptive Index (JDI)
Measures pay, promotion, supervision, nature of the work, characteristics of co-workers
Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ)
Covers 20 job facets, including advancement, independence, recognition, social status, and working conditions
Personal interviews
Sentence completion tests
Critical incidents technique
See pp

24. Job Satisfaction
A single measure of job satisfaction does not identify those areas of specific satisfaction of dissatisfaction
Need to examine what questions are asked and to which population
Satisfaction with specific job facets varied from 22% (promotion policy) to 58% (interest in work)
Only 10 to 13 percent of workers say they are dissatisfied with their jobs
Satisfaction varies with industry and type of job
See pg. 234.
See for top 100 best places to work.

25. Personal Characteristics and Job Satisfaction
Age – positive relationship
Sex – no clear difference
Race – whites generally more satisfied than minorities
Cognitive ability – depends on education and challenge
Job experience – positive relationship
Use of skills – increase with use of more skills
Job congruence – positive relationship
Organizational justice – positive relationship
Personality – varies with different Big 5 factors
Job control – positive relationship
Occupational level – positive relationship
See pp

26. Losing Your Job Job loss is stressful….
Those losing higher level jobs suffer more from unemployment
Personal sense of betrayal
Decrease in organizational commitment among survivors
See pp

27. Losing Your Job
Finding a new position helps counteract the negative effects unless there is dissatisfaction with the new job
It may help to take a time off to handle the grief before starting a job search
Individuals high in job involvement had increased stress due to job uncertainty, and health problems
See pp

28. Job Satisfaction and On-the-Job Behavior
There is a positive but weak relationship between satisfaction and productivity
Research indicates that productivity may increase job satisfaction
High job satisfaction is related to prosocial behavior , that is, helpful behaviors directed at customers, co-workers, and supervisors
Counterproductive behavior is related to dissatisfaction
See pg. 241.

29. Job Satisfaction and On-the-Job Behavior
Job satisfaction is negatively related to absenteeism and turnover
There is less absenteeism and turnover in jobs that require a high level of creativity, challenge, complexity, and autonomy
Turnover is not always harmful
Functional turnover occurs when poor employees quit their jobs
Dysfunctional turnover occurs when good employees quit their jobs
See pp

30. Perceived Pay Equity
Perceived equity or fairness of pay may be more important than the amount
We tend to develop personal standards of comparison based on the minimum salary we consider acceptable
Reflects Equity theory
Women and minorities generally earn significantly less than white men
See pg. 244.

31. Merit Pay
Merit pay systems pay higher performing workers more than less productive workers
Widespread disagreement among managers about the behaviors that should be important in making decisions about pay
Supervisors who themselves receive ample pay raises tend to recommend higher raises for subordinates
However, supervisors low in self-esteem may also provide high raises for fear of retribution
Merit pay seems to work better for those lower in positive affect
See pp

32. Wage-Incentive Systems
The primary pay system for production workers
The more units produced, the higher the wage
Seldom works in practice
Many work groups establish their own production norms, regardless of the wage-incentive
Most workers prefer a straight hourly system
See pg. 246.

33. Job Involvement
Job involvement is the intensity of a person’s psychological identification with the job
The higher the identification, the greater is one’s satisfaction
Job involvement is related to personal characteristics, job characteristics and social factors
Older workers and employees who work in teams are more involved
Those workers with growth needs are more involved with enriched jobs
See pg. 246.

34. Organizational Commitment
Organizational commitment (OC) is the degree of psychological identification with or attachment to the company
Components of OC:
Acceptance of organization’s values and goals
Willingness to exert effort for the organization
Strong desire to remain affiliated with the organization
Longer tenured employees have stronger correlation between OC and job performance
See pg. 247.

35. Organizational Commitment
Organizational factors related to commitment include job enrichment, autonomy, opportunity to use skills, and positive attitudes toward the work group
There is reciprocity of perceived commitment from the organization; also with organizational equity and justice
The greater the diversity of the organization, the less the commitment among the majority white employees (same for gender)
See pg. 247.

36. Types of Organizational Commitment
Affective or attitudinal
The employee identifies with the organization, accepts its values, and complies with its demands
Correlates with perceived managerial potential
Continuance or behavioral
Employee is bound by extrinsic factors (“golden handcuffs”)
Normative
Involves a sense of obligation to the employer
See pp

37. Organizational Citizenship Behaviors
OCBs involve putting forth extra effort, doing more than the minimum requirements for a job
Include
Taking additional assignments
Voluntarily assisting others
Keeping up with professional development
Following company rules when not being watched
Promoting and protecting the organization
Keeping a positive attitude and tolerating inconveniences
Those who display OCBs tend to be high in conscientiousness, extraversion, optimism and altruism
See pg. 249.

38. Key Terms Achievement motivation Equity theory Goal-setting theory
Job-characteristics theory
Job congruence
Job enrichment
Job satisfaction
Merit pay
Motivator-hygiene theory
Needs hierarchy theory
Organizational citizenship behaviors
Prosocial behavior
Valence-Instrumentality-Expectancy theory
Wage-incentive system
Definitions on pg. 125 of the Instructor’s Resource Manual.