1. Gov/Hist 352 Campbell University
China and Japan
Part IV, Kamakura, Japan to Qing, China.
Gov/Hist 352
Campbell University

2. Hogen and Heiji Conflicts
The Hogen (1156) and Heiji ( ) conflicts set the stage for the Gempei War.
These conflicts occurred during the period of Insei rule and involved the Taira and Minamoto clans. Taira no Kiyomori was the winner of both.
By 1180, the Minamoto had rebuilt its power in eastern Japan and under Yoritomo initiated the Gempei War ( ).
Insei Rule. During the late 11th and the 12th century, governmental control of Japan passed from the Fujiwara family, which had maintained power through marriages to the imperial family, to cloistered emperors. By abdicating, these emperors escaped the control of Fujiwara regents and chancellors; once inside a temple or monastary, they surrounded themselves with capable non-Fujiwara aristocrats. It was the edicts of the cloistered emperor, not the reigning one, that were obeyed, insofar as any orders were obeyed in a period of increasing collapse of central authority. The practice came to an end with the reign of the emperor Go-Daigo (1318–39).
Hogen Conflict (1156) occurred in the Hogen era between the Taira and Minamoto clans that marked the end of the Fujiwara family's dominance of the monarchy and the start of a prolonged period of feudal warfare.
The conflict began as a dispute over control of the Imperial court between the retired emperor Sutoku and the reigning emperor Go-Shirakawa. When the head of the Fujiwara family, which had controlled the position of chief councillor, or kampaku, since 857, supported Go-Shirakawa, Sutoku called in a band of Minamoto and Taira warriors headed by Minamoto Tameyoshi. Another group of warriors headed by Taira Kiyomori then came to the aid of the opposing side. Kiyomori's forces were victorious; Tameyoshi was executed, and Sutoku was exiled. Fujiwara leadership had been proven ineffective, however, and the Taira family came into real control of the government.
Three years later, Minamoto Yoshitomo, the head of the Minamoto forces that had allied with Taira Kiyomori in 1156, attempted a coup d'etat against Taira leadership. In the ensuing Heiji Disturbance (Heiji no ran), Kiyomori emerged victorious, and the Taira consolidated their hold over the country.
Taira no Kiyomori (Woodblock Print)

3. Gempei War
The war led to the permanent defeat of the Taira by Minamoto Yoritomo.
Yoritomo’s younger brother, Yoshitsune, proved to be a brilliant military leader.
The heroic exploits of the war are celebrated in The Tale of Heike. One of the heroes of the tale is Minamoto Kiso Yoshinaka.
In 1177, relations between the Taira clan and the retired Emperor Go-Shirakawa became highly strained, and the latter attempted a coup d'État to oust Taira no Kiyomori as prime minister. Kiyomori defeated the former emperor and abolished the Insei system. This provoked strong anti-Taira sentiment.
On March 21, 1180, Taira no Kiyomori put his grandson, Antoku (then only two years of age), on the throne, after the abdication of Emperor Takakura. Go-Shirakawa's son, Prince Mochihito, felt that he was being denied his rightful place on the throne and, with the help of Minamoto no Yorimasa, sent out a call to arms to the various samurai families and Buddhist monasteries.
When it is seen that the Taira would loose the Battle of Dan-no-ura due to the defection of one of their own, Shigeyoshi, the Emperor Antoku’s grandmother (Kiyomori’s widow), takes the child emperor in her arms, exclaims that they have a kingdom beneath the waves” and jumps into the water drowning them both. Most of the warriors follow suit.
There are two recent translations of the Tale of Heike, one by Burton Watson (Columbia University Press) and the other by Helen McCullough (Stanford University Press). Both are available for purchase on-line. Additionally, an illustrated summary (woodblock prints) is at
Yoshitsune became victim to Yoritomo’s jealousy and fratricide.
George Sanson’s translation of the Tale of Heike’s account of Kiso’ end follows.
Kiso no Yoshinaka, Minamoto but a rebel against his clan, approaches his end. “Last year he rode forth with fifty thousand horse. Now he passes along the river bed with only six followers. Sad! – and the sadder still to think that he is traveling in the dim space between two worlds.” He meets a retainer, Imai, with a handful of men, and they gather together a small force of three hundred, to meet the attack of six thousand enemy troops. “Well matched,” says Yoshinaka, and rides into the fight. “That day my lord Kiso was arrayed in a silk under dress of brocade on a red ground, and armor with cords of Chinese silk. He girded on a long sword, richly mounted, and fastened tight a helmet with a horned crest of gold ...Rising high in his stirrups, he cried in loud voice, “ You have often heard of me, the Knight of Kiso. Now you see me! This is I, Master of Horse, Lord of Iyo, General of the Rising Sun, Yoshinaka of the Minamoto. Come, take my head if you can, and show it to Yoritomo!” The fight of course is desperate. Yoshinaka’s beautiful mistress, a girl named Tomoe, takes a hand and kills a man. But before long the small band is almost wiped out and Imai persuades Yoshinaka to flee. He rides off. “Darkness was at hand, and everything was coated with thin ice, so that he could not see where the deep rice fields lay, and his horse soon plunged in to the thick mud up to its neck. He whipped and spurred, but could not stir it. Yet even in this plight he was concerned for Imai, and turned to see how he fared, when a man of the province of Sagami, Miura no Shida-no Jiro Tamehisa, rode up and shot and arrow pierced his helmet. He was stricken and fell forward with his head bowed over his horse’s mane. Thereupon two of Ishida’s
men fell upon him and struck of his head. Holding the head high on the point of his sword, Ishida proclaimed in a loud voice: “Kiso no Yoshinaka, known throughout the land as the demon, has been slain by me, Miura Ishida-no- Jiro Tamehisa!” Ima was till fighting when he heard this, but then he said: “Now who is left for me to follow in the battle? See, you men of the east country, learn from this example how the stoutest fighter in Japan ends his own life!” and he held the point of his sword in his mouth and flung himself headlong from his mount, so that he was pierced through and died.”
This story illustrates well the fighting spirit of the age, and the view of loyal duty which led a warrior to follow is master in death. The custom of suicide no doubt arouse in days when self inflicted death was preferable to capture and mutilation by a merciless enemy, whose triumph was measure by the number of heads he could display. But it was fostered by the knightly code which taught that death was better than disgrace.
The final battle was a naval engagement fought at Dan-no-ura on the Straits of Shimonoseki.

4. Kamakura Bakufu
Having defeated the Taira in 1185, Yoritomo became defacto ruler of Japan. He established the headquarters of his military government in Kamakura and wrestled the title of Shogun from the Imperial court in 1192.
After Yoritomo's death, Hojo Tokimasa, claimed the title of regent to Yoritomo's son, Minamoto no Yoriie.
The Hojo regency became hereditary.
Bakufu means tent government, alluding to the use of tents by soldiers.
Kamakura was a small fishing village about 28 miles south of modern day Tokyo. It has become a tourist destination, especially for Tokyo residents on a weekend holiday. Among its attractions is the Bronze Kamakura Buddha.
The full title for shogun is actually seii taishogun and means barbarian suppressing generalissimo.
Hojo Takimasa was the chief of the clan to which Yoritomo’s widow (Masako) belonged. He was also Masako’s father. Masako was dubbed the “nun shogun” in recognition of the extent she dominated shogunal politics. The Minamoto remained the titular shoguns for two more dynasties, with the Hōjō holding the real power—thus ruling through a puppet shogun and a titular emperor.
The shogunate lasted as an institution until 1868, the Meiji Restoration.
Minamoto Yoritomo ( )

5. Jokyo Disturbance
By 1221, the Shogun exercised almost total control over the court. Emperor Go-Toba reacted by attempting to overthrow the Bakufu.
The emperor gathered forces loyal to the court (mostly Taira) at Kyoto and then declared the Hojo regent (Yoshitoki) an outlaw.
War ensued. The emperor’s forces were no match for the Shogun’s. The final battle was fought at the Uji River. Go-Toba and his sons were banished.
Go-Toba was banished to Oki Island and never heard from again.

6. Jito and Shugo
Yoritomo devised a system of Jito (land stewards) and Shugo (constables or military protectors) thru which he imposed his control of the country.
Jito:
Levied the commissariat rice tax for military purposes.
Collected land taxes and dues from the shoen and provided shoen men for military service.
Reclaimed wastelands, supervised roads and post stations, arrested minor criminals, judged suits and conducted trade.
Eventually became hereditary local gentry..
Shugo: activated the Imperial Guard, maintained security, suppressed rebellions, and punished major criminals. They became the daimyo.
The commissariat rice tax was one fiftieth of the rice yield. There were no exceptions. The tax was to support the Shogun’s government.
The Shugo essentially functioned as military governors.
The Jito and Shugo system was devised by Oe Hirmoto, an advisor to Yoritomo, who had previously served the court in Kyoto. Yoritomo’s government drew a number of disaffected officials who served the Bakufu well. The system was fitted to the realities of the time, unlike the Taikwa reforms which attempted to imitate China.
The control of lands by the Kamakura government encountered resistance from the court in Kyoto and the Fujiwara in particular. The result was a patchwork of land controlled in one area by the Bakufu and in another by the court. Jurisdictions frequently overlapped.

7. Bakufu Government
Internally, the Bakufu was composed of three major major divisions.
Military – supervised the Minamoto vassals plus delt with military and police matters.
Administrative – a hereditary civil service which was initially quite effective. Documentation was a surprising strength. Titles, obligations, contracts pledges, etc., were all written and on record.
Judicial – functioned as a court of appeals for cases that could not be settled locally by the Jito and Shugo. Justice was prompt, impartial and fair. It recognized the mutual obligations of peasant and barons and didn't hesitate to side with the peasant, if appropriate.

8. Joei Code
The Joei Code was published in It was the Shogun’s law of the land.
Described the duties of the Jito and Shugo.
Laid down principles for judging disputes, primarily involving land tenure.
Dealt with the status of women and inheritance.
The wife is equally responsible as the husband for premeditated crimes.
Gifts of land to daughters are equally irrevocable as to sons.
Women may adopt children and transmit property to them.
Women do not loose property rights in case of divorce, unless for cause.
Emphasized the importance of fairness and equity.
The settlement of disputes was a key governmental function. The Bakufu did everything possible to assure fairness. A translation of the Joei Code is at

9. Code of Bushido
The Code of Bushido (Way of the Warrior) evolved from clan house law.
Absolute loyalty to one’s lord transcended all other obligations including those to family, friends and even the emperor.
The vassal’s life was not his own, but a gift to his lord.
The vassal could hope for rewards, but the lord was not obligated to provide them.
Conflicts in loyalty and affection were the source of classic Japanese tragedy. The most famous of these is the Tale of the Forty-seven Ronin.
Bushido is also translated as the “way of the horse and bow.”
The Tale of the Forty-seven Ronin is celebrated as a famous play by Chikamatsu, Chushin-Gura.

10. The Mongol Invasion Kublai Khan attempted to invade Japan twice:
1274: 450 ships, 15, 000 Mongol troops & 15,000 Korean seamen and auxiliaries attacked Kyushu.
1281: Two fleets, one from Korea with 50,000 men and another from China with 100,000 men converged on Kyushu.
The Japanese fought heroically, but it was the Kamikaze that won.
The route used by the Mongol forces during the first invasion was from Masan (near Pusan in southern Korea) Tsushima Island to Iki Island to Hakata Bay. The second invasion included a force sent from China
Kamikaze is “Divine Wind.” The wind was a Typhoon or in the western hemisphere a hurricane. About half of the forces sent against Japan perished. Kublai was in the process of assembling another force in 1294 when he died. The great losses had not deterred him.
Mongol Invasion Route

11. The Mongol Invasion
1274:
The Japanese garrison on Tsushima Island fought to the death.
The local stewards and constables on Kyushu engaged the Mongols w/o reinforcements.
1281:
Hakata Bay was fortified.
The Japanese trained in mass maneuvers.
The temples and shrines chanted prayers.
Mongol cannon balls and grenades.
The Mongols not only used cannon but catapults as well to lob grenades against their enemy. Spent munitions were recently found by archeologist at Hakata Bay..
The following is an account of the second invasion attempt from
The Eastern Route Army, in 900 Koryo ships, departed from Masan on 3 May and occupied Tsushima, and proceeded to occupy nearby islands. On June 6, it attacked Hakata but was driven back and landed at Shiganoshima. Several days later, the army was driven back from Shiganoshima and returned to Iki and then to Hirado. 
The Southern Route Army of General Bom arrived in 3,500 Chinese ships in mid-July, and the combined forces began to push back the outnumbered defenders. By the end of July, the invaders were victorious and well on the way to occupying Kyushu.  Then a severe storm kicked up on July 29 and some Mongol generals panicked and sailed to the safety of Masan: nearly half of the invasion fleet left the battle area.  To make the matter worse, an epidemic spread among the soldiers, killing several thousands.
On August 1, another storm kicked up forcing most of the remaining ships to return to Masan leaving behind a token army of about 20,000 soldiers. The Japanese descended on the outnumbered invaders and killed all but about 10,000 Chinese soldiers. Of the 9,960 Koryo army and 15,029 sailors, 19,397 Koreans made it back home. The Mongol generals and army, fearing severe punishment by Kublai, went into hiding in Koryo.  The Chinese captives became slaves in Japan and few of them made it back to China.  It has been claimed that many of the Chinese defected and that some officers sabotaged the Mongol ships and canons. 

12. End of Kamakura Bakufu
Success against the Mongols was the undoing of the shogunate.
The Buddhist temples and Daoist shrines took much of the credit, claiming their prayers and supplications brought the kamikaze.
The warriors expected to be rewarded, but there was nothing with which to reward them. The usual rewards were land and booty.
Disillusion with the shogunate led to its weakening and resulted in stewards and protectors becoming increasingly independent.

13. The Pure Land Sect
The turbulence associated with the rise of the warrior class supported fear of the “end times” or mappo and pietism. Amida worship flourished.
Honen taught that the nembutsu was the only method of achieving salvation. This represented salvation through faith rather than works.
Shinran ( ) emphasized gaining salvation through the “other power” of the Amida’s compassion. This was salvation by faith alone. His followers founded the True Pure Land sect.
The nembutsu literally means "buddha in mind.“ It has come to mean verbal recitation of the words "I take refuge in Amitabha Buddha" in one language or another. The form that we commonly use is "Namo Amida Bu".
Adherents of Amida worship frequently added “ami” to the ends of their names.

14. Nichiren (1222 to 1282) The name means “Sun Lotus.”
Was a monk who founded the Nichiren school of Buddhism, consisting of the exclusive worship of the Lotus Sutra as the only means of salvation
He had studied for 20 years when in 1853 he declared his faith and asserted that all other forms of Buddhism should be banished.
He prophesized the Mongol invasion as Japan’s punishment in the “end times.”
When he declared his beliefs to his fellow monks, he caused such consternation that he was forced to leave the monastery. He spent most of the rest of his life early life living in shack in Kamakura. He was exiled twice for his beliefs. The second exile was to Sado Island in place of a sentence of death.
He had avoided death when lighting struck just as the executioner was to strike off his head. He then assumed the role of a Bodhisattva.
His prophesizing the Mongol invasion gained him some respect with the Kamakura government. He was allowed to return to Kamakura, but the government would not agree to banish other forms of Buddhism. So, he retired to Mount Minobu.
The Buddhist term for “end times’ is mappo.
Soka Gakkai (Value Creation Society) and the Clean Government
Party are modern expressions of Nichiren Buddhism in Japan.
Nichiren (1222 to 1282) The name means “Sun Lotus.”

15. Zen During the Kamakura period, Zen was promoted by two monks:
Eisai ( ), a follower of the Rinzai school that used riddles or koan as an aid to enlightenment (satori). He also introduced the use of tea leading to the development of the tea ceremony.
Dogen ( ), an advocate of the Soto school of Zen. It relied on Zazen, silent meditation.
Zen is a highly disciplined practice that can be quite physically demanding.

16. Kemmu Restoration
The Ashikaga Shogunate began with the Kemmu Restoration ( ) when Emperor Go-Daigo tried to reassert imperial control.
Go-Daigo’s immediate objective was to break an agreement to alternate the selection of emperors between the two branches (Northern and Southern) of the Yamato family.
Two individuals acted in the emperor’s name:
Ashikaga Takauji ( ) commander of the Bakufu force sent to suppress the rebellion.
Nitta Yoshisada ( ) who seized Kamakura and ended the Minamoto bakufu and Hojo regency.
The Kemmu restoration would probably not be considered particularly important were it not for the Meiji Restoration of 1868 which brought an end to feudalism in Japan and almost 250 years of isolation. The Kummu Restoration represented a historical precedent.

17. Ashikaga Shogunate
Go-Daigo played Ashikaga Takauji and Nitta Yoshida against each other and attempted to submerge their military forces into his civilian government.
Takauji defeated Nitta, dethroned the emperor, placed his own man on the throne from the Northern court and had himself declared shogun in 1338.
The Ashikaga did not have sufficient power to control events. The Shoen system broke down, the constables became powers unto themselves and the stewards stopped forwarding shiki to Kyoto.
Two imperial courts existed in Japan for over 50 years: the Southern court of Go-Daigo in Yoshino and Northern court supported by the Ashikaga. They fought many battles against each other. The Northern court usually was in a more advantageous position; nevertheless, the South succeeded in capturing Kyoto several times for short time periods resulting in the destruction of the capital on a regular basis. The Southern court finally gave in in 1392, and the country became reunited again emperor-wise. Guide.com
Without shiki, the court nobles became impoverished.

18. Muromachi Bakufu
The Ashikaga shogunate established its bakufu in Muromachi, a district in Kyoto.
The structure of the bakufu changed little from Kamakura. The key difference was the increased power of the shugo, who became regional rulers.
Under Yoshimitsu, the shugo were required to establish their primary residence in Kyoto, where they ruled in council with the shogun.
To meet Ashikaga demands, the shugo and jito levied new taxes on land, households, businesses and trade, much of which they kept.
Under the Kamakura Bakufu, the jito was the key player on behalf of the shogun’s government, Under the Muromachi, the key player became the shugo. About half were housemen of the Ashikaga, the other half were unrelated.
Yoshimitsu was the third Ashikaga shogu.
Instability became worse as local deputies gained greater power and overthrew the shugo in Kyoto. Local conflicts also led to the number of powerful shugo being reduced as one devoured another to achieve even greater power.

19. Yoshimitsu’s Japan
The Ashikaga Shogunate was seduced by the life-style of the imperial court.
Yoshimitsu and his heirs became great patrons of the arts while ignoring the anarchy around them.
Yoshimitsu engaged in extensive and lucrative trade with the Ming.
Zen temples functioned as patrons.
The lavish life-style of the period is symbolized by the Golden Pavilion. Yoshimitsu began construction of the pavilion in 1397 as a residence for his retirement. It was converted into a Zen temple after his death in 1408.
Yoshimitsu’s lavish life-style required money and trade offered great profits. To promote trade, he accepted Chinese pretensions of superiority and and also agreed to control the Japanese pirates,called Wako. They were the scourge of the Chinese coast, although they seldom operated without local Chinese collusion.

20. Zen Architecture
Together with Yoshimitsu’s Golden Pavilion, Yoshimasa’s Silver Pavilion and the Ryoanji rock garden reflect the strong influence of Zen. Like the Golden Pavilion, the Silver Pavilion was built as a retirement residence, then became a Zen temple. Ryoanji was built on a Fujiwara estate after the Onin War.
The Silver pavilion was never covered with Silver, although the intention was to do so.
Ryoanji means Temple of the Peaceful Dragon. It is considered to be one of the great masterpieces of Japanese art. There are 15 rocks laid out on a white gravel bed. The intention is to induce tranquility through balance and rhythm. It measures approximately 100 ft long by 33 feet wide.
The garden is not attributed to any single designer, although it is commonly believed that a leading monochrome artist named Soami (1480?-1525), in association with Daisen-in, designed and laid the garden. However the temple records are contradictory and indicate some other makers, and the back of one of the 15 stones is inscribed with the names of Kotaro and Hikojiro, who might have been two of the workers that did the actual construction. Did they also help in designing it? Nobody really knows. Yamasa Institute.

21. Zen & the Tea Ceremony
The tea ceremony became a ritual art during Yoshimasa’s tenure as shogun.
The Silver Pavilion was the first to have a room built specifically for the tea ceremony.
The tea room/house is intended to have an austere simplicity. There is no furniture, just mats. The walls are sliding partitions and doors. The entry is only 36 inches high, so all must bow acknowledging that they are equal before the tea.
The mats are called tatami. They are made from read grass with a woven surface. The standard tatami measures slightly less than 6 feet by 3 feet. Room sizes are frequently described in terms of the number of tatami required to cover the floor.
Japanese tea is prepared from powdered green leaves.

22. Noh
Noh is a classical Japanese performance form which combines dance, drama, music and poetry.
Actors wear masks and brightly colored costumes; a chorus accompanied by flutes and drums provides narration. All parts are played by men
Noh performances are accompanied by Kyogen farces to lift the mood.
In many ways Noh dramas are Buddhist morality plays, focusing on the fleeting and illusionary nature of life. The mood is somber and the music has an other worldly character to it. The pace of the performance is very slow. The actors appear to be slowly moving from one exaggerated pose to another.
The founders of Noh were Kanami ( )and his son, Zeami ( ). Noh flourished under the patronage of Ashikaga Yoshimitsu

23. Trade and Commerce
Trade with China, and to a lesser extent Korea, became an important source of Ashikaga income.
Exports to China: Copper, Sulfur, folding fans, lacquer ware, large numbers of swords and other weapons.
Imports from China: Copper coins, Iron, textiles, embroideries, pictures, books and drugs.
Sakai (south of Osaka) became a principal port for local & international trade. The merchants became so rich that the Kamakura and Ashikaga called upon them for loans. The price was limited self-government and judicial autonomy.
The profits on export items ran between 5 and 10 times what could be made domestically.
The Chinese did place limits on trade. The Japanese demand for copper cash literally stripped the supply.
Copper coins are commonly called “cash.”

24. Transportation
The constant warfare forced improvements in roads and ports.
A weak central government led to a proliferation of local customs and tariffs. Each manor and monastery demanded tolls and taxes.
The cost of transporting items could be easily doubled to compensate for tolls and taxes.
Muromachi Ship, Artist Conception

25. Guilds
Guilds (Za) became common. They attached themselves to temples, shrines and great families for protection. Examples:
The Kyoto cotton clothiers - the Gion Shine.
Yeast brewers – Kitano Shrine
Warehouse Keepers – Tendai Monastery.
Paper maker – The Bojo family.
Gold leaf makers – The Konoe family
Courtesans – The Kuga family.
Protection didn’t come cheap.

26. Peasant Riots
Taxes were heavy, usury was the rule and pawn shops the vehicle.
Peasant riots led to 13 “tokusei,”i.e., general cancellation of debts.
Rioting groups were frequently strengthened by ronin members and could defeat minor military contingents.
Towns, villages and even provinces were held for extended periods by ronin reinforced peasant groups.

27. The Family
During this period of anarchy, the family became a critical social and political element.
The ability to protect property became critical. Primogeniture became common. All property was rewarded to a single male heir, usually the oldest, but not always.
The objective was to hold property by force of arms.
Constant warfare led to the country being partitioned into small self-governing units controlled by a single overlord, the ShugoDaimyo.
The term daimyo is a shortened form of shugo-daimyo.

28. Onin War
Was a succession dispute in which the Yamana and Hosokawa clans backed different candidates to succeed the retiring Yoshimasa ( ) as shogun.
Each clan amassed 80,000+ troops in Kyoto. The conflict lasted from 1467 to Kyoto was destroyed and looted many times over.
Violence spread to all of Japan, becoming the Warring States Period.
                                                         
Warring States Period is Sengoku Jidai in Japanese, translated Nation at War. It covers the 15th and 16th Centuries.
The Ashikaga Shogunate( ) was never as powerful as the Kamakura Shogunate( ) had been. Neither the shogun nor the emperor had enough power to restrict or control the feudal houses (daimyo), which by 1467 had grown to almost 260 in number. So, for all practical purposes, Japan by 1467 was in fact 260 separate countries, for each daimyo was independent and maintained separate armies. The political and territorial picture in Japan, then, was highly volatile. With no powerful central administration to adjudicate disputes, individual daimyo were frequently in armed conflict with other daimyo all through the Ashikaga period.
In 1467, the Onin War began. The Onin War began when Shogun Ashikaga Yoshimasa produced two candidates to succeed him. First, he proclaimed his brother, Yoshimi, heir to the shogunate. Yoshimasa even dragged his brother out of a monastery to fulfill his proclamation. However, a year later, upon the birth of his son Yoshihisa, Yoshimasa’s wife decided that her son was a better candidate and actually enlisted support for his succession from contending clans. The Yamana and Hosokawa clans had spent years as rivals and chose different candidates to back as the next shogun. Looking to do battle, the Yamana and Hosokawa clans met up in Kyoto, each with over 80,000 men. It became a stalemate. Neither army wanted to start the war, fearing that they'd be labeled "rebels" by the shogun. After Yamana brought in 20,000 more men in, and burned the Hosokawa mansion to the ground, the war started. After only a few months, parts of Kyoto were in ruins, and most of the population had fled. Even so, these armies were not about to retreat.
The Onin War ravaged on for ten years, costing thousands of lives. Both Yamana Souzen and Hosokawa Katsumoto died in 1473, and even then, the war continued on, neither side figuring out how to end the war. It was by 1477, some ten years after the fighting had begun, that Kyoto was now nothing more than a place for mobs to loot. Neither the Yamana clan, nor the Hosokawa clan had achieved it's goal. During this time, the shogun did nothing to stop the violence. The people began taking matters into their own hands. Eventually, no area in Japan was untouched by the violence. The best way to settle any dispute, during this time, appeared to be by the sword. Although the battles in Kyoto had been abandoned, the war had spread over to the rest of Japan. For seventy years, the battles raged on. Many powerful families, like the Hosokawa and Ouchi, rose and fell. Then, in 1551 an important event happened. A small warlord named Oda Nobuhide passed away. His son, Nobunaga, would take over his command, and eventually rise to prominence. The fortunes of war produced a number of landless soldiers. These “ronin” formed the ranks of the “ashigaru” or foot soldiers and infantry. Their existence gradually fueled a shift in the style of warfare toward large massed formations. The ashigaru eventually became musketeers.
An Ashikaga Daimyo

29. Azuchi-Momoyama Period
Three major figures emerged to restore order to Japan and create a feudal state.
Oda Nobunaga ( ).
Toyotomi Hideyoshi ( )
Tokugawa Ieyasu ( )
In describing the relationship between these three men, it was said that "The reunification is a rice cake; Oda made it. Toyotomi shaped it. At last, only Ieyasu tasted it."
The Azuchi-Momoyama period came at the end of the Warring States Period in Japan, when the political unification that preceded the establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate took place. It spans the years from approximately 1568 to 1603, during which time Oda Nobunaga and his successor, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, imposed order upon the chaos that had pervaded since the collapse of the Ashikaga Shogunate. The name of this period is taken from Nobunaga's castle, Azuchi Castle, in the present-day town of Azuchi, Shiga Prefecture and Hideyoshi's castle, Momoyama Castle (also known as Fushimi Castle), in Kyoto.
In broad terms, this period begins with Nobunaga's entry into Kyoto in 1568, when he led his army to the imperial capital in order to install Ashikaga Yoshiaki as the 15th, and ultimately final, shogun of the Ashikaga shogunate, and lasts until the coming to power of Tokugawa Ieyasu after his victory over supporters of the Toyotomi clan at the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600.

30. Oda Nobunaga Oda Nobunaga was the first to attempt to unify Japan.
He inherited Owari in central Honshu. He overcame divisions in his own clan and thru alliances and conquest controlled 1/3rd of Japan when he was assassinated in 1582.
Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Ieyasu were both his generals
The Oda clan was split into two branches each with different alliances and both contending for inheritance. Nobunaga was not adverse to assassinations eliminate dissonance within the Oda clan.
He managed to gain a measure of notoriety by defeating Imagawa Yoshimoto’s force of 25,000 with only 3,000 troops of his own through an early morning ambush in a thunderstorm. A succession dispute offered Oda Nobunaga the opportunity to enter Kyoto in a legitimate role. Yoshiaka’s succession to the shogunate was disputed by the Rokkaku clan. The clan had its own candidate and would not recognize Yoshiaka claim. Yoshiaka appealed to Oda Nobunaga who quickly defeated the Rokkaku forces and made Yoshiaka the 15th Ashikaga shogun. Nobunaga’s goal was for Yoshiaka to function as his puppet. Yoshiaka tried to function independently and began fomenting a series of anti-Nobunaga alliances. The result was a temporary defeat in The culmination of the Battle of Nagoshino in 1575.
Oda Nobunaga’s use of firearms and reliance on ashigaru against traditionally mounted samurai set a historical precedence at the Battle of Nagoshino in Takeda Katsuyori forces were practiced in mass cavalry charges using pikes. When faced with this force of 15,000, Nobunaga arrayed his infantry equipped with harquebus behind palisades. He manned this emplacement with a mere 3,000 harquebus. When the charge came, the ashigaru decimated the attackers with “ordered firing according to rank.” There were three ranks. One rank after another fired while the other two loaded and primed.The tactic placed Oda Nobunaga’s army a hundred years ahead of any other army in the world only 32 years after the first firearms were brought to Japan by the Portuguese.
The growth of the ashigaru (infantry) produced at least one great leader, Toyotomi Hideyoshi.
Oda Nobunaga had little liking for organized Buddhism. Monasteries had meddled in politics to the determent of the country. He destroyed the Tendai monastery on Mt. Hiei and killed about 1,600 monks and nuns. He also close to exterminating the Ikko sect (30-40,000 adherents) which was part of the Pure Land Buddhist movement.
Oda Nobunaga. He pioneered the use of modern weapons and tactics. The Battle of Nagashino in 1575 was a classic in the use of firearms.

31. Toyotomi Hideyoshi
Hideyoshi was one of Oda Nobunaga’s ablest generals, but his greatest talent was politics.
He managed to keep Tokugawa Ieyasu at bay through marriage and land assignments in Kanto.
Hideyoshi controlled Japan thru personal loyalties. He could not be named shogun as he was not a Minamoto, but he did have himself adopted into the Fujiwara family and was appointed regent.
Tradition has it that Hideyoshi was born in the Owari district. He was the son of a peasant soldier and woodcutter who ran away to become a warrior monk. He was trained as an ashigaru (infantry man) and joined Nobunaga army in He was so poor that when hem married a year later his wedding garments were made from discarded battle flags.
Since he was a peasant, he had no family name (we’d call it last name). Peasants didn’t have family names until the Meiji Restoration. He eventually took the assumed name of Toyotomi, which means “abundant provider.”
Hideyoshi cut an odd figure, especially as a general and later as a ruler. Short and thinly proportioned, Hideyoshi's sunken features were likened to that of a monkey. The rarely tactful Nobunaga called him Saru (monkey) and the 'bald rat'. As a younger man, he made friends easily. He had an innate sense for manipulation and reading other men, attributes that no doubt helped him in his rise to power.
Toyotomi Hideyoshi

32. Hideyoshi’s Domestic Policy
Relocation of Daimyo and their Samurai.
Sword Hunt of 1588.
Minimized rioting and rebellion.
Separated farmer from samurai
Land Survey- Set minimum to be a Daimyo
Edict of 1591-Converted class to caste.
Occupational status could not be changed.
Peasants became serfs for practical purposes.
The reassignment of Daimyo with their samurai divorced the daimyo from local loyalties and support while at the same time strengthening the hand of the daimyo vis-a-vis the samurai. The Samurai was no longer a connected to the land, family and village. The samurai became totally dependent upon the daimyo for support.
One result of the policy of reassignment was that between 1580 and 1610 there was a sudden spurt urban construction. Many of the great castles of Japan were constructed at this time as fortresses that could withstand harquebus and and cannon fire. They were often large enough to house entire armies.
The existence of castle towns accelerate the process of separating peasant farmers-warriors from lower ranking samurai. Teh status of samurai eventually became essentially a caste.
The samurai were the only class allowed to possess and carry weapons. The peasant warrior who also tilled the soil was pretty much eliminated.
The land survey assessed the value of land in terms of its productivity, measured in Koku of rice (4.96 bushel). To be a daimyo required control of land producing 10,000 koku. Many daimyo held much more land and it is said the Hideyoshi possessed land producing 2 million koku.
The edict prohibited samurai from becoming peasants or townsmen and peasants from leaving heir fields to become merchants or artisans and the converse. It also prohibited anyone from employing a samurai who had left his master without permission. This was to preclude ronin from acting as fee agents, attempting to negotiate better conditions for themselves. A modern comparison might be provisions in a professional athletes contract to prevent him acting as a free agent for a period of years.

33. Hideyoshi’s Foreign Policy
In the 1590s, demanded the submission of the Philippines by the Spanish governor.
Tried to invade Korea and China.
In 1592, sent 150,000 men to invade Korea. His forces were pushed back by Chinese forces into the Pusan pocket.
In 1597, sent another 140,000 men.
In 1598, Hideyoshi was preparing to send additional troops when he died.
The text claims that Hideyoshi’s foreign policy was not so much a product of megalomania as ignorance of the world outside of Japan.
The demand for the Philippines to submit may have been an idle bluff. There was never any follow up.
Hideyoshi demanded free passage through Korea to China. The Koreans refused, ostensibly out of loyalty to China. They may have also legitimately feared permitting Japanese troops to enter their country. Once the conflict was joined, the Chinese swept down from the North and caused as much harm to their allies as the Japanese ever would have. A point of comparison in WWII, Japan demanded free passage through Thailand to Burma. The Thais granted it.
The American experience during the Korean War in some ways paralleled that of Hideyoshi’s forces. After occupation forces were pulled in from Japan to combat the North Koreans, they were pushed back into the Pusan pocket. General Douglas Macarthur was designated to lead U.S and allied forces. He devised a landing at Inchon which outflanked the North Koreans. Initially, it was extremely effective and allied forces drove all the way to the Chinese border, but then the Chinese entered the war bringing overwhelming numbers to bear. U.S. and allied forces were pushed back to the 38th Parallel.
One factor not present in the American experience that played a very significant role in Hideyoshi’s was the Korean navy. The Korean navy was well armed and sank a large portion of Japanese troop and supply ships, cutting lines of communication. The Korean navy was famous for its Turtle ships.

34. Tokugawa Ieyasu
As one of Hideyoshi’s more powerful allies, Ieyasu was assigned a large domain at Edo (now Tokyo) in the Kanto Plain.
When Hideyoshi died, Ieyasu was one of five regents sworn to support Hideyori, Hideyoshi’s five year old son.
The Battle of Sekigahara in 1600 led to Ieyasu being designated shogun in 1603.
Osaka Castle fell in 1615 and ended Hideyori’s life.
Hideyoshi moved Ieyasu to a large domain with a dilapidated castle at the fishing village of Edo (which lent its name to the 250 years of peace which followed the Warring States period). Ieyasu's move to Edo was a reward for his loyal service, a means to increase Hideyoshi's control over eastern Japan, and a safely remote location for Ieyasu, a powerful, and therefore potentially dangerous, retainer of Hideyoshi. After Hideyoshi's death, Ieyasu quickly took control of the country. In 1603, he accepted the title shogun from the emperor. With the aid of excellent advisors, Ieyasu put together a system of stable government on the feudal model, using elements perfected by his two predecessors.
The battle of Sekigahara was the culmination of a plot against Ieyasu by by a coalition of daimyo. The coalition sought to draw Ieyasu back north by fomenting a revolt. Ieyasu responded. Although aware of the plot, it gave him the opportunity to amass an army from the Kanto area. He recognized that he was leaving the Kyoto/Osaka area to his enemies, but felt that by controlling the lies of communication he could control the capital as the bread/rice basket of Japan was now Kanto. The LOCs were two roads: the Tokaido Way and the Nakasendo.
His adversary, Ishida Mitsnari, took the bait when Ieyasu deployed his forces at the town of Sekigahara, located equal distance between the two roads at their closest approach, about 20 miles apart. Rain and fog hid the two armies from each other until 8 a.m. on October 21, 1600, when they found themselves facing each other.
Treachery finally carried the day. After pitched battles, the Kobayakawa samurai defected to Ieyasu.
Like Nobunaga, much of Ieyasu’s military fame came from his imaginative use of the firearms.
Tokugawa Ieyasu

35. Castles
In addition to being defensive fortifications, castles were status symbols and centers around which new towns grew.
Decorations were ostentatious and profuse. Entertainment was equally elaborate including 10 day tea parties.
Nevertheless, aesthetic austerity remained the ideal.
Every daimyo had to have his castle. As fortifications they had a practical side
Osaka Castle (Momoyama) was built by Toyotomi Hideyoshi on the pattern of Oda Nobunaga’s Castle. It originally had 48 towers. The current structure was rebuilt in 1997.

36. Tokugawa Government
The Tokugawa capital was Edo with deputies stationed at Osaka, Shizuoka and Kyoto.
The Daimyo were bound to the shogun by oaths of loyalty and family.
Tozama- Outside or allied daimyo.
Fudai- House daimyo; Tokugawa vassals.
Shimpan- Collateral daimyo; members of Tokugawa branch families.
The fudai and shimpan were strategically located. The tozama were considered the most potentially dangerous and were assigned lands in outer areas.

37. Tokugawa Control Daimyo were:
Required to live in Edo during alternate years (sankin kotai). Families were left in Edo when the Daimyo returned to his estate.
Limited to one castle; repairs required bakufu approval.
Limited in the number of warriors that they could maintain.
Prohibited from building large ships.
Required to obtain the Bakufu’s consent for marriages.
Subject to the confiscation of estates if unable to produce a male heir. (Adoptions were not recognized.)
The requirement to spend alternate years in Edo was the source of considerable expense, especially when wives and children had to be left behind (essentially as hostages) when the daimyo returned to his estate. One had to keep up appearances in terms of proper residence and retinue with which to travel.
Famous stories of travel along the Tokaido Way by the rich and famous to reach Edo produced literature comparable to the Canterbury Tales.

38. Tokugawa Strength A comparison of agricultural holdings.
Tokugawa – 6.8 million koku
Shimpan – 2.6 million koku
Fudai – 6.7 million koku
Tozama – 9.8 million koku
Religious Institutions- 600,000 koku
The Emperor- 187,000 koku
The Tokugawa possessed about 1/4th of Japan’s land, many of Japan’s mines and most of its important cities.
The koku was originally defined as quantity of rice. Historically, it was defined as enough rice to feed one person for one year. A koku of rice weighs about 330 pounds and is about 5 bushels.
The English royal family possesses huge estates. At one time, its position may have been comparable to the Tokugawa.

39. Bakufu - Han Relations
There were about 250 han (domains) in Japan. The internal government of the hans was largely left to individual daimyo, as long as they paid their taxes.
By the 17th Century, 80% of samurai received a stipend; by the 18th Century 90% received a stipend. Only 10% retained local roots.
The balance between the central government and the hans was in constant flux, varying with the strength of the shogun and various hans
The relationship in terms of government was initially closer to confederation. When a child shogun was placed on the throne, the han seemed to dominate. When a strong shogun was on the throne, the bakufu dominated.
Some fairly large han that were distant from the central government essentially became semi-independent little kingdoms. Among these were Satsuma, Choshu, Haizen and Tosa, all in the south on Kyushu. Satsuma actually controlled Okinawa and through Okinawa conducted trade with China.

40. Economic and Social Change
Peace brought prosperity and change.
Cultivated acreage doubled and multiple-cropping became common. Market networks grew.
The population rose from 18 million to 33.1 million in the 1800s.
Villages became largely self-governing as the samurai moved to castle towns that became han capitals.
Wealthy villagers invested in rural industries such as vegetable oil processing, sake brewing, soy sauce and paper.
Merchants became increasingly powerful, providing banking services and eventually loans to the powerful.

41. Changing Role of Samurai
Many samurai became han or bakufu bureaucrats.
The right to wear two swords remained the badge of their inherited status, but their martial skills were seldom used.
The peacetime samurai sought to combine the roles of Confucian scholar and warrior. Yamaga Soko pioneered this fusion, modern bushido.
The U.S. military places considerable emphasis on the academic achievements of it ranking officers. Master degrees are common, doctorates are not unusual.
Following the Confucian model which places the merchant at the bottom of the theoretical social hierarchy, samurai disdained financial matters, at least superficially. Many were actually quite poor and with time became even poorer, a little bit like modern members of the British aristocracy.

42. Genroku Culture .
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The entrance to Shinyoshiwara, Edo’s “floating world” of Genroku last from 1688 to 1704.

43. The Floating World
In a brief 50 year period, Yoshiwara produced a series of outstanding art forms.
Ukiyo-e pictures, primarily wood block prints, of the floating world. Masanobu was the leading artist and publisher. In later years, landscape prints flourished.
Kabuki and Bunraku theater. Many plays were written by Chikamatsu, Japan’s Shakespeare.
Haikai and Haiku poetry. Matsuo Basho is famous for the latter
Print of a Kabuki actor.

44. Western Intrusion The Portuguese opened the way. India –1498
Goa – 1510
Malacca-1511
China– 1514
Japan –1543
Macao-1557
Spain trailed in the Philippines in 1571.

45. The Objectives and Players
The Portuguese and Spanish had two objectives:
Profitable Trade. To break the Arab, Venetian and Genoese monopoly on spices and other items.
Spread Christianity and combat the spread of Islam.
The missionary players were:
Jesuits (Society of Jesus).
Dominicans.
Franciscans.
The Pope: Line of Demarcation.
The Jesuits (Society of Jesus) was founded in 1534 by St. Ignatius Loyola, a trained soldier and courtier. He was seriously wounded in battle when a cannon ball shattered on leg and he suffered a wound in the other. He lived in pain for the rest of his life. The society bears his militant character and sense of discipline. The mission of the Jesuits was to use the knowledge of the enlightenment and Renaissance as a weapon in the battle for men’s souls. This concept continues to this day. They are and were the storm troopers of the counter reformation. St Francis Xavier ( a co-founder of the society) and Mateo Ricci were among it leading members in the missionary effort in Asia.
The Dominicans were founded in 1216 to combat heresy. The initial heresy was the Albigenses heresy from a local abbey in southern France and dealt iwth th cocept of good and evil. It argued that man’s spirit was good by his body and the world were evil. It advocated suicide. The role continued . During the Spanish Inquisition, the chief inquisitor was a Dominican, Tomas De Torquemada.
The Franciscan Order was found in 1209 by St Francis of Assi. Its mission was the spiritual care of the masses. St Frances is usually portrayed holding a bird in his hand.
The Lind of Demarcation was set in 1493to separate Spanish and Portuguese exploration and conflict. It was moved by mutual consent to 48 degrees West, slicing through Brazil. The line continued around the earth to 17 degrees East. It gave the Philippines to the Portuguese. The claims were bartered. Spain received the Philippines for its share of Brazil. The effect of the Bull and the negotiations was that Spain would sail West and Portugal would sail East.
Heritage of Conflict with Moslems. The Moors conquered most of Spin and Portugal in the early 700’s. With them came the Islamic religion fron North Africa and Arab preserved learning in mathematics , medicine and astronomy. Jews were often the transmitters.
During the period of 1000 and 1100, bitter fighting gradually resulted the the reconquest of Spain and Portugal by Christian forces. By 1276, only Granada in the south was left in Moorish hands. In 1480, the Spanish inquisitions was initiated.
Ignatius Loyola, principal founder of the Jesuits

46. Initial Reception
During the Tang and Sung Dynasties, Arab and Persian traders were free to trade and reside in Chinese ports and cities.
The first Portuguese initially met with a friendly welcome. Fernado d’Andrada was even received at court.
The Chinese reception changed when Simon d’Andrada began pirating on the Pearl River.
When Alphonso de Mello appeared off Canton in 1522, the Chinese attacked and sunk his ships. The Portuguese did not return until 1542.
The problem was that the Portuguese had little to trade. They sought to make suffiecient profits from local trade between SEA, China and Japan to buy a cargo for the return trip to Europe. Regrettably, they not infrequently resorted to acts of piracy. The lack of something to trade became a recurring problem for other westerners. The Ming wanted Silver for trade items. The answer was Opium.
A second aggravating factor was the behavior of Portuguese and other western sailors. Sailors were commonly drawn from the dregs of society, criminals, sociopathes, etc. Life at sea was harsh and cruel. Life expectancy was very low. Lack of food and water, scurvy, contact with hostile natives and shipwreck in barely charted waters were common. The result was even under the best circumstances, they were wild and disorderly.
The Portuguese managed to establish a factory at Ningpo in It last for two years before assault, murder and arrogance led to hostilities. When the Portuguese began constructing a fort, the Chinese attacked and exterminated all who did not escape by sea.
In spite of their reputation, the Portuguese finally gained Chinese agreement to allow them to reside in Macao in Its at the tip of a peninsula which the Chinese walled off and guarded to protect the mainland from the Ocean Devils.

47. Jesuits in Japan
Francis Xavier landed on Kagoshima Island in The reception was warm. He was tall (5’1”), blue eyed and martial in his bearing. He was immediately impressed with the character and appearance of the Japanese.
Xavier learned the language and customs quickly, including bathing. The Japanese were receptive to the Christian message, although they may have initially thought it to be a form of Buddhism.
Kagoshima Island was part of Satsuma at the time.
The Portuguese had been shipwrecked on the island of Tanegashima six years before Xavier’s arrival. The Portuguese carried harquebus. The Japanese had never seen firearms before, were greatly impressed and immediately started copying them. The name they gave their weapons was “Tanegashima” for the island.
In his letters home, Xavier discusses at some length the Japanese warlike character and love of weapons. They were extremely polite, but hostile to foreigners in general. He avoided this hostility through by being accompanied by his converts. The one that escorted him to Kagoshima had the Christian name of Paul.
At least superficially, European and Japanese feudalism resembled each other as did Catholicism and Buddhism- incense, bells, water, robes, etc.
Saint Francis Xavier

48. Jesuit Success. By 1614, the Jesuits had achieved 300,000 converts.
Xavier had met with Nobunaga and Hideyoshi, who were favorably impressed. Hideyoshi even wore a Rosary. He saw Christianity as a way to combat Buddhism and increase trade.
Ieyasu initially favored Christianity, as well.
Western clothing became a fad.
The Japanese loved the trade. The Jesuits even administered the port of Nagasaki for seven years.

49. What Went Wrong
The Franciscans arrived from the Philippines in In 1597, Hideyoshi crucified six Franciscans and 18 converts when the pilot of their ship boasted of Spanish power and intentions.
The Dutch and English arrived in the early 1600’s. Will Adams piloted the first Dutch ship.
The questions faced by the Japanese were:
Would Japan be in jeopardy of colonization from the Philippines by the Spanish?
Would the Franciscan social message lead to insurrection?
The Franciscan message is essentially egalitarian. The Japanese ruling class considered it to be subversive.
The pilot of the first Dutch ship was Will Adams, an Englishman. He became quite influential with Tokagawa Ieyasu and was the model for Samurai.

50. Exclusion Policy
A serious campaign began in 1614 to expel missionaries and suppress Christianity.
40,000 persons were killed.
3,000 have been recognized as martyrs by the Vatican.
The Shimabara Rebellion ( ) led to 37,000 deaths. The rebels fought under Christian flags with slogans written in Portuguese.
All Europeans were expelled except for the Dutch on Deshima Island, Nagasaki.
Shimabara is near Nagasaki.
The Spanish were expelled in in 1624; the English left voluntarily one year later; all members of a Portuguese embassy trying to return to Japan after the Shimabara rebellion
were executed. The Japanese were forbidden to build sea going vessels and to trade abroad.
The Dutch were allowed one ship a year in trade. Much of Japan’s knowledge of the west after the expulsion came from books brought by the Dutch. Knowledge of western things came to be called “Dutch Learning.”
The picture is housed in a small wooden church in Japan, Missouri, about 66 miles south of St Louis. The residents are not Japanese and few if any knew for many years the origin of the town’s name.
The little village of Japan came into considerable publicity after the Japanese attacked us at Pearl Harbor [December 7th, 1941], and some Missourians began an agitation to change its name. It turned out that few of its inhabitants were aware of its connection with the enemy country, for down there the name is customarily pronounced as "JAY-pan" or "JAY-puhn,"...with the accent on the first syllable. The patriotic zeal of the agitators was further checked when the history of the name was brought to light. The village was actually named, not for the country at all, but for the old Catholic Church there which has been in existence for more than a century. The "Church of the Holy Martyrs of Japan," to give its title in full, was named for the twenty-six priests and lay brothers of Spanish, Portuguese, and Japanese blood who were crucified for their faith on Feb. 5, 1597, in the great persecution that almost wiped out Japanese Christianity for the next three hundred years. When the pastor told its heroic story, the community decided to keep its name, which commemorated not only the savagery of the Japanese persecutors, but also the Japanese capacity for becoming saints and martyrs.
The martyrs' feast day is held on February 6th, as the Memorial of Saint Paul Miki and Companions. Franciscans, Jesuits, and laymen were among the martyrs, who were crucified on the "Holy Mountain" overlooking Nagasaki. That area remained a center of Christianity for centuries, often practiced in secret. Nagasaki's cathedral was the target upon which an atomic bomb was dropped, ending World War II. The spread of Christianity is slow and difficult in Asia, because the deep-rooted fear of interfering with someone's karma makes the practice of charity difficult. There is a large monument to the 26 martyrs of 1597 in Nagasaki
Church of the Holy Martyrs of Japan, Japan, Missouri.

51. Entry to China
Francis Xavier’s entry into Japan was eased by his friendship Anjiro, a Samurai.
Entry to China proved much more difficult. Xavier died on Shangchuan Island in 1552 waiting entry.
Organizational support for Jesuit missions was established by Alessandro Valignano..
Matteo Ricci’s entry into China was facilitated by his training in Goa, Malacca and Macao.
Xavier met Anjiro in Malacca. He helped him learn the Japanese language, prepare his witness and hosted him in Japan.
Shngchuan Island is about 14 Km off the coast of China.
Valignano had a strong impact on the Japanese mission. He strongly encouraged the establishment of a Japanese clergy and went to great lengths to establish and support a seminary. The idea of a native clergy was not popular, especially with the leader of the mission, Cabral. He felt that they were insufficiently sincere and inadequately prepared. Nevertheless, when the missionary were expelled and ultimately Christianity banned, that native ministry kept the spark alive for 250 years.
Francis Xavier was 46 when he died. He had spent about two years in Japan starting the Jesuit mission there. He was first buried on the island, then in Malacca a year later and finally in Goa in 1553, where his body rests today.
Alessandro Valignano

52. Matteo Ricci
Was a Jesuit and first successful Christian missionary to China. He was presented at the court of Wanli in He is buried in Beijing.
He learned classical Chinese and styled himself a “Western Confucian.” His amazing gift with languages, astounding memory and knowledge of mathematics, astronomy and cartography gained him the opportunity to proselytize to the elite.
The Jesuits continued their mission in China during the Qing Dynasty.
The other figure in the picture is Paul Sue, an early convert and member of the gentry.
Almost all that was know of China during this period was learned through with Matteo Ricci’s correspondence.
Matteo Ricci

53. The Rites Controversy
The Matteo Ricci gained a privileged place in the Chinese imperial court for the Jesuits.
The controversy involved the Dominicans, who accused the Jesuits of compromising the Christian message. Three questions emerged.
Was Confucianism a religion or a philosophy?
Could one participate in court rituals and not be participating in a religious ceremony?
Should the word “Tien” or “Shang ti” be used for God?
In 1704, the Pope condemned Chinese rituals. By 1724, Christianity was proscribed.
Matteo Ricci was not only granted an audience, but was given a stipend, granted permission to reside in the capital and was buried in a plot of land donated by the emperor. He was followed by Adam Schall Von Bell and Ferdinand Verbiest. They were appointed court astronomers, a position of great importance to an emperor who considered it his duty to coordinate heaven and earth through endless ceremonies for planting harvest , etc.
Remember, the Dominicans were formed as a holy order to combat heresy. That is what they essentially accused the Jesuits of condoning. Arguments and counter arguments were presented at the Vatican. The conclusion was that Confucianism is a religion, court rituals are religious and Shangti, not Tien should be used for the Christian God. The scope of the argument can be expanded to include questions of the very nature of religion and the extent to which custom impacts on worship. Can a Chinese become a Christian without being considered dead by family and community?
The last Jesuit to be appointed to the imperial court was Guiseppe Castiglione. He was a court painter. The long term impact of the Papal decision together with conflicts with the Portuguese and Spanish in South America was to put the Jesuits out of business temporarily. A Papal edict suppressing the order was issued in 1773; however, the order continued to exist in Poland and parts of Russia. The ordered was restored in 1814.
The total number of Christians in China when Christianity was proscribed was only about 300,000. In a country the size of China, that’s not many. There was no significant persecution of Christians.
The problem was not limited to the Dominicans, although they were a major part of it. The protestants were making inroads in China and with them came arguments over doctrine and theology.
Probably the greatest influence of the missionary effort was on Europe. The West received a very favorable impression of the East and all its wealth.

54. Qing Dynasty
Colored areas represent land lost to Russia under two treaties. The yellow is the Treaty of Aigun, The brown is the Treaty of Peking, 1860.
The Qing Dynasty was established by the Manchus. It replaced the Ming and lasted from 1644 to 1912.

55. Founding the Later Jin
Nurhaci was the founder of the Jurchen state and Khan of the Later Jin. He:
Established his capital at Shenyang.
Developed a script with which to write the Jurchen language.
Established the banner system.
Wrote the Seven Vexations.
Nurhaci died from wounds suffered in a defeat by Ming forces equipped with Portuguese cannon.
He was succeeded by his son, Hong Taiji who founded the Qing Dynasty.
There are numerous spellings of the name, “Nurhaci.” “Nurhaci” achieves the best search results. Nurgaci is used by the text; Nurhachi is also common.
The concept of a Later Jin is tied to the Jin threat ruled North China during the Southern Song. The Jin were also Jurchen.
Shenyang is known by the modern name of Mukden.
The script used to write Jurchen is similar to that devised to write Mongolian.
The Manchu encountered something new when the Ming forces employed cannon. By 1529, the Manchu had captured a number of Portuguese gunners and shortly thereafter were able to effectively employ this weapon.
Taking the word Qing (pure) was a signal of Hong’s ambitions to conquer China.
“Manchuria's greatest native son was Nurhachi, a man who not only stabilized the region but changed the course of its destiny. Born in 1559, Nurhachi rose to leadership by defeating rivals, first from within his own tribe and then against rival tribes in the area.
In the 1590s, Japanese expansionist forces successfully invaded Korea, with plans to continue onward, using Korea as a staging ground to stab at China. A succession of ineffective Chinese imperial rulers in the Ming Dynasty left its military in shambles. Despite this vulnerability, China was able to repel the Japanese invaders.
Nurhachi, a border chieftain, traded his aid in defeating the Japanese for money and supplies. Even after the war ended, Nurhachi continued to organize his tribesmen into an effective army. He developed the Banner system in 1601, a style of military organization that divided his warriors and their captives into companies.
With such an army under his command, Nurhachi's territory grew to include all of Manchuria and Korea. Nurhachi's greatest battles began in 1618, as he set his sights on China itself. After outlining in his text, The Seven Great Vexations, his grievances with the Ming Dynasty, he waged war against them.
The poor leadership of the Ming Dynasty, stronghold rulers of China for 275 years, had
entire districts of China fall to bandit chieftains while Nurhachi moved his forces to the Chinese-Manchurian border. The overtaxed Chinese military could not stop Nurhachi from reaching Peking, and ridding the city of bandits. By 1622, Nurhachi's forces held everything north of the Yangtze River.
Nurhachi died of battle wounds in 1626, defeated by the warriors of the Ming. He may have lost that battle, but not the war; Nurhachi's 14th son, Dorgon, lead the conquest of the Chinese Empire in 1644, thereby ending the rule of the Ming Dynasty and establishing the Qing (Manchu) Dynasty, rulers of China for the next 270 years. Nurhachi was recognized posthumously as the first emperor of the Manchu Dynasty.” ( U)
Nurhaci ( )

56. The Banner System
Nurhaci established the first four banners in They became the model for the organization of his army and Manchu society.
The basic unit was a company of 300 men. The number of companies per banner varied. The averaged banner was composed of 7,500 warriors.
By 1644, there were eight Manchu, eight Mongol and eight Chinese banners, a total of 150,000 men plus their families.
The number of companies per banner depended on the ethnicity. There were 278 Manchu companies, 120 Mongol companies and 165 Chinese companies.
The color green was used to designate civilian banners who were used as constabularies.
As the Manchus became more organized and took on the administration of territory and peoples, the bannermen became more involved in a governmental activities.
The banners were stationed strategically around China with the bulk in the Beijing area. Initially, the first four banners were responsible directly to Nurhaci; the rest to Manchu princes. Eventually, all were made directly responsible to the Khan/emperor.
The bannermen were considered a hereditary nobility within Manchu society. They were forbidden to intermarry with other than Manchus and could not leave their profession or work at other occupations without permission. Sadly, 150 years of peace left them incapable of defending the country when the challenge came.
The colors of the first four banners were yellow, white, red and blue. These were repeated with borders for the next four. Green was civilian.

57. Consolidation The Qing sought Chinese assent to its rule by:
Honoring the deceased Ming emperor.
Adopting familiar governmental forms.
Holding examinations.
The north accepted the Qing; the south did not. A massacre occurred in Yangzhou; Nanjing was bitterly fought.
Some areas remained in revolt for over 40 years.
Han Chinese males were forced to wear their hair in the Manchu manner as a sign of submission.
The picture is of Jet Lee.
The Yangzhou massacre occurred over a ten day period when Prince Dodo sanctioned the massacre of 80,000 men, women and children by Manchu troops. Yangzhou occupies a strategic location on the Yangtze River across from Nanjing and on the Grand Canal.
Dodo was the fifteenth son of Nurhaci and one of Dorgon's two full brothers. He distinguished himself in conquering China proper with Dorgon.
Wang Xiuchu was a 17th century middle-class scholar who lived through the Manchu conquest of Ming China. Wang's most significant accomplishment is his writing of the "Yangzhou shiri ji," an account that details his survival of the notorious Massacre of Yangzhou that was perpetrated by Prince Dodo of the Manchus. In this account five members of Wang's extended family are killed by Qing troops, and he witnesses the rapes and killings of many of his neighbors. In the end of the narrative he is rescued by a sympathetic Manchu officer who orders his soldiers to spare the lives of Wang and his surviving family members.

58. Koxinga
Koxinga was a major leader of the resistance in the S.E. and a supporter of Ming Prince Tang.
His mother was the daughter of a samurai; his father was a Chinese pirate.
He controlled Fujian and the Southeast Coast. In 1662, he took refuge on Taiwan and expelled the Dutch. He died of Malaria.
Koxings’s mother was the daughter of a Samurai and his father was a Chinese pirate. He was raised in Japan , but later lived in China and actually attended Nanjing University.
In the areas south of the Yangtze River, though, there were many anti-Manchu people of principle and ambition who wanted to restore descendants of the Ming Dynasty to the imperial throne. One of these descendants, Prince Tang, was aided to gain power in Fuzhou by Huang Daozhou and Zheng Zhilong, Koxinga's father. When the Manchurian Qing Dynasty's forces captured Prince Tang, Koxinga was in Zhangzhou raising soldiers and supplies. He heard the news that his father was preparing to surrender to the Qing court (it is also possible that the Qing Court promised amnesty to him and his followers as a lure) and hurried to Quanzhou to persuade him against this plan, but his father would not listen. His mother was killed by Qing forces, possibly raped and murdered. He raised an army and sent forces to attack the Qing forces in the area of Fujian and Guangdong. While defending Zhangzhou and Quanzhou, he once fought all the way to the walls of the city of Nanjing. But in the end, his forces were no match for the Qing. The Qing court sent a huge army to attack him and many of Koxinga's generals had died in battle, which left him no option but retreat.
In 1661, Koxinga led his troops to a landing at Lu'ermen to attack Taiwan. On February 1, 1662 the Dutch Governor of Taiwan, Frederik Coyett, surrendered Fort Zeelandia to Koxinga. This effectively ended 38 years of Dutch rule. Koxinga then devoted himself to making Taiwan into an effective base for anti-Qing sympathizers who wanted to restore the Ming Dynasty to power.
There are at least two books in print about Koxinga and a DVD starring Jet Lee.
Koxinga Temple in Tainan, Taiwan. Koxinga’s real name was Zheng Chenggong ( ). He is a hero of books and movies, both Communist and Nationalist.

59. Revolt of the Three Feudatories
Three Chinese generals who assisted the Qing were rewarded with governorships. Wu Sangui (Yunnan), Shang Kexi (Guangdong) and Geng Jingzhong (Fujian). They became almost autonomous rulers.
Wu Sangui’s influence extended to adjoining provinces, causing alarm in the Manchu court. Emperor Kangxi saw the three as a threat.
War ensued in It took until 1683 to suppress the feudatories.
The Revolt of the Three Feudatories presented a major challenge. Wu Sangui's forces had overrun most of southern China and he tried to ally himself with local generals. A prominent general of this kind was Wang Fuchen. Kangxi, however, united his court in support of the war effort and employed capable generals such as Zhou Pei Gong and Tu Hai to crush the rebellion. He also extended commendable clemency to the common people who had been caught up in the fighting.

60. Form Vs. Substance
10 million Manchus vs. 350 million Chinese. To preclude absorption, yet provide representation:
Governmental Ministries- Each controlled by a Manchu prince with four presidents: two Manchu, one Mongol & one Chinese.
Civil Service Positions-One half were reserved for Manchus, the remainder were divided between north and south Chinese.
Civil Service Examinations- A separate examination system was established for Manchus.
Since the south of China was more populated, the competition for civil service positions through the examination system was greatest there. This may have suited the Manchus in that there was considerable bitterness and distrust of southerners from the long and difficult period of conquest.
The Manchus knew that they could only rule with the consent of the governed and that could only be achieved if their rule was “more Chinese” than the Chinese. This situation led to extreme conservatism and fear of innovation, even when it would have been beneficial in confronting the west.

61. Leadership Struggle
When Manchu forces entered Peking thanks to Wu Sanguei, their leadership situation was tenuous.
Hong Taiji had died in 1644 and a child (Shunzhi) was placed on the throne as a compromise between competing interests.
Dorgon, Nurhaci’s 14th son, became regent and effective ruler. He died in 1650 at the age of 39.
Shunzhi died in He was succeeded by 8 year old Kangxi. Bitter infighting between co-regents followed until 1669, when Kangxi assumed control by having the regent Oboi arrested.
The opportunity provided by Wu Sanquei’s defection was too good to ignore, but the timing was difficult in terms of Manchu leadership.
It was only after Kanxi assumed the throne that Manchu control of China was finally consolidated and direction given to the country.

62. Kangxi
From the reign of Kangxi thru the 18th Century, the economy and culture of China flourished. Kangxi’s accomplishments included:
Completing conquest of China.
Negotiating the Treaty of Nerchinsk with Russia in 1689.
Crushing a Mongol revolt in
Conquering Tibet and installed a pro-Chinese Dalai Lama.
Closing Manchuria to Chinese immigration.
Prohibiting intermarriage with Chinese and foot binding by Manchu women.
Completing the conquest of China was no mean task. It included dealing with Koxinga and annexing Taiwan/Formosa plus the Revolt of the Three Feudatories.
The Treaty established the Amur River as the northern boundary of Manchuria. This was part of a long-term conflict between China and Russia over borders.
The Mongol revolt led to the Chahar being incorporated into the Mongol Banners.
Kangxi (r )

63. Yongzheng and Qianlong
Emperor Yongzheng’s Accomplishments:
Intervened in Tibet a second time ( ).
Made fiscal reforms. Magistrates were to receive sufficient stipends on which to live.
Secured succession of heir by sealing name in a box.
Emperor Qianlong’s Accomplishments:
Sponsored a 36,000 volume catalog of important works of Chinese culture.
Conquered Mongolia, Annam, Burma and Nepal.
Annexed Chinese Turkestan (Xinjiang) and Ili.
Intervened in Vietnam to restore the Le Dynasty only to suffer a major defeat.
The Qianlong Emperor was also a major patron of the arts. The most significant of his commissions was a catalogue of all important works on Chinese culture. Produced in 36,000 volumes, containing about 3450 complete works and employing as many as 15,000 copyists, the entire work took some twenty years. It preserved many books, but it was also intended as a means of ferreting out and suppressing those deemed offensive to the ruling Manchurians

64. The Economy Agriculture: Industry and Commerce:
Superior strains of rice, better irrigation & better fertilizer increased the food supply.
Corn, sweet potatoes, and peanuts were introduced from America.
Industry and Commerce:
Ceramics, cotton, silk, hemp, paper, metals, tea, sugar, tobacco all became major trade items.
Canals formed an excellent infrastructure.
Commercial banking was highly developed.
Maritime trade (Chinese bottoms) eclipsed the Silk Rd.
The new crops from America could be grown on land that was unsuitable for rice farming.
The Chinese canal system was equivalent to the train system in Europe.
Chinese shipping along the coast and into SEA flourished even with European competition.

65. Social Change
The population topped 300 million and was increasingly urbanized.
Disparity in income was striking. Merchants became extremely wealthy; Manchu Bannermen became impoverished.
The number of Civil Service positions remained stagnate; the number of candidates more than doubled. Examination criteria were formalistic.
The mother-in-law dominated the extended family.

66. Foot-binding
A plaster casting of a foot (above). Especially designed shoes for bound feet.
Foot-binding was a mark of status and was more common in the South. .

67. Dynastic Decline Decline was the product of many things.
The population had expanded beyond the ability of agriculture to support it
Population pressure on the land led to deforestation, soil erosion, silting and flooding.
Qianlong’s wars and dynastic extravagance drained the treasury of 150,200,000 taels and almost bankrupted the country.
Corruption and incompetence were rampant, e.g.,the Manchu guards officer Heshen.
The White Lotus Rebellion ( ) followed by the Taiping Rebellion ( ) and similar events .
In his later years, Qianlong was rather disillusioned and sated with power and glory. With Heshen as the highest ranked minister and most favored by Qianlong at the time, the day to day governance of the country was left in the hands of Heshen whilst Qianlong himself indulged on everyday luxuries and his favourite pastime of hunting. It is widely said that Heshen laid the foundation for further collapse and corruption of the Qing government and eventually came to a point where it was impossible to reverse the negative impact already done to all levels of Qing Government at the time. When Heshen was killed, it was found that he was even richer than the country's depleted treasury. Qianlong started out his reign with about 30,000,000 taels from Yongzheng's period. Around 1775, Qianlong reached the peak of the Qing's prosperity with about 73,900,000 taels in the treasury, which is a record unmatched by Kangxi or Yongzheng's period; however, the mass corruption on all levels along with the heavy expenses of over 150,200,000 taels on the expeditions, the building of more palaces, the personal 6 trips to Jiangnan, the money on the White Lotus Rebellion, the slow increase in opium and the luxiourous spending nearly depleted the once prospering and overwhelming treasury. By the end of Qianlong's reign in 1796, almost all of the country's treasury was used up. Along with the decline in the 8 Banner Army, this would leave a huge problem for the successor-Jiaqing to handle. (Wikipedia)

68. The White Lotus was the symbol of the movement.
White Lotus Rebellion
The rebellion ( ) affected Sichuan, Hubei, Henan, Gansu and Shaanxi.
White Lotus believers held that Maitreya’s return was imminent, the Ming would be restored and the people would be rescued from their suffering.
The rebellion was connected to the earlier Yuan Red Turban Rebellion and the Boxer Rebellion of 1900.
The founder of the White Lotus Society was Mao Ziyuan ( ), a Southern Song Pure Land and Tiantai master. It evolved from Amidist pietism into a tradition that abandoned priestly celibacy, emphasized lay vegetarianism and simplified texts and rituals.
By the Mongol Yuan dynasty, it had absorbed such cult practices as talismanic magic, prognostication and exorcism. In the 14th Century, it combined with Maitriya devotion, Manicheanism and sectarian Daoism. Believers increasingly resorted to violence, motivated by an eschatological vision of their imminent victory over their evil oppressors. (Encyclopedia of Asian History)
The White Lotus was the symbol of the movement.

69. End Part IV
Pine, Plum and Cranes, 1759 AD, by Shen Quan ( ). Hanging scroll, ink and color on silk. The Palace Museum, Beijing