1. Ethnicity
AP HUG 12

2. What is Ethnicity?
Ethnicity is identity with a group of people who share a cultural tradition of a particular homeland
Race is identity with a group of people who share biological characteristics
Ethnic identity is tied to a geographic location – the conditions and characteristics of that place influence the culture

3. Where are ethnicities distributed?US
African Americans (13%)
Hispanic/Latino (13%)
Asian American (4%)
American Indian (1%)
Regional clusters of ethnicities in the US
African Americans - SE
Hispanic/Latino - SW
Asian American - W
American Indian – SW & Plains States
African American
Hispanic
Asian
Native
American

4. Where are ethnicities distributed?
Clustering of ethnicities in US cities
>50% African-Americans are urbanised (Detroit, Chicago, Los Angeles, New Orleans)
NYC is >25% Hispanic; NY state 1/16th

5. Where are ethnicities distributed?

6. Where are ethnicities distributed?

7. African American Migration
3 main migration flows of African Americans have shaped their current distribution patterns
Forced migration from Africa to American colonies (slavery on southern plantations)
Migration from the South to the North 1st half of the 20th Century – sharecropping fails & wartime needs in industries
Migration from inner city ghettoes to other urban neighbourhoods in 2nd half of 20th Century

8. Race in the USA
Spatial interaction between races discouraged by legal means in the past and through cultural preferences or discrimination today
Separate but equal
Southern states Jim Crow Laws – blacks had to sit in the back of buses; hotels and restaurants had the right not to serve blacks
Separate schools and restrictive covenants on house deeds against blacks, RC and Jews

10. White Flight 1950s and 60s, US segregation laws were eliminated
Rather than integrate, whites fled
White flight was encouraged by unscrupulous real estate practices
Blockbusting – fear of blacks moving in would result in whites selling properties for low prices; blacks, eager to escape overcrowding in ghettoes, would buy properties at much higher prices

11. Case Study - Apartheid (apart-hate)
1940s-1990s – system in South Africa whereby people were segregated into different geographic areas based on race
Apartheid laws determined where races could live, go to school, shop and own land
Blacks could not vote nor hold political office

13. Separate but not Equal – South Africa
Brief history
Dutch settle the Cape in 1652
Became known as Afrikaners or Boers
British seize the Cape in 1795
To escape British administration & the freeing of slaves in 1833, 12,000 Boers trek northwards to Transvaal & Orange Free State
British annex the Transvaal after gold & diamonds are discovered (1860s)
Anglo-Boer War culminates in a British victory (1902) – South Africa forms part of the British Empire
1948 Afrikaans Nationalist Party wins elections – apartheid introduced to maintain white dominance

14. Separate but not Equal – South Africa (cont.)
International opposition to apartheid results in growing economic & political sanctions except for landlocked neighbours dependent on ports & MDCs dependent on resources
Introduction of the black homelands, further segregates races
1991 apartheid repealed; ANC legalized
1994 Nelson Mandela comes to power; SA accepted by international community
Legacy of apartheid remains

15. Why Have Ethnicities Been Transformed into Nationalities?
Nationality is identity with a group of people who share legal attachment and personal allegiance to a particular country
Those of the same nationality have the same citizenship, carry the same passport, vote in the same elections and carry out civic duties in the same country
Is Canada a multi-national country – are the Quebecois a distinct ethnicity (part of the cultural mosaic) or a distinct nationality (justifies separation)?

16. Rise of Nationalities
The US forged a nation in the late C18th out of a collection of ethnic groups gathered from Europe & Africa who shared the values expressed in the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution and the Bill of Rights – “unalienable rights … life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.”

17. Self-determination
Ethnic groups have transformed into nationalities because they desire self-rule
Preserve and enhance distinct cultural traits
Self-governance without interference
A nation-state is a state (country) whose territory corresponds to that occupied by a particular ethnicity transformed into a nationality – rare e.g.: Japan

18. Nation-States in Europe
Throughout the C19th, ethnicities were transformed into nationalities
E.g.: France under Napoleon Bonaparte consolidated French cultural traditions, the French language, the RC religion and the principles of “liberté, égalité and fraternité” – a unified nation
Western Europe consisted on many nation-states; however Eastern Europe consisted of Empires and States which were not ethnically defined

19. Case Study Denmark: A Nation-state?
Faroe Islands
Greenland
Mainland & major islands
Danish territory
Home-rule
Islanders speak Faroese
Nearly all Danes speak Danish
Nearly all Danish speakers live in Denmark
However, Southern boundary does not divide Danish & German nationalities exactly
Schleswig-Holstein vacillated between Denmark & Germany
Danish territory
Home-rule
Known as Kalaallit Nunaat
87% are of Inuit ethnicity

20. The Pledge of Allegiance
Nationalism
Governments instill loyalty through nationalism
Achieved through mass media & promotion of the symbols of state
Nationalism is a centripetal force – unites people & enhances support for the state
The Pledge of Allegiance
I Pledge Allegiance to the flag of the United States of America and to the Republic for which it stands, one Nation under God, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all.

21. Multi-national States
A state containing more than 1 ethnicity is multi-ethnic e.g.: Belgium
A state containing two ethnicities with traditions of self-determination that agree to peacefully co-exist e.g.: United Kingdom – England, Scotland, Wales & N. Ireland

22. Case Study – Former USSR
Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)

23. Case Study – Former USSR (cont.)
Baltic States
Lithuania
81% Lithuanian RC
Balto-Slavic language
Estonia
65% Estonian
Protestant
Uralic language
Latvia
57% Latvians

24. Case Study – Former USSR (cont.)
European States
Belarus (78%) & Ukraine (73%)
East Slavic languages
Eastern Orthodox
Crimean Peninsula of Ukraine is 2/3 Russian
Moldova (65%)
Moldovans are ethnically related to Romanians

25. Case Study – Former USSR (cont.)
Central Asian States
Turkmenistan (77%) & Uzbekistan (80%)
Muslim
Altaic language
Kyrgyzstan
52 Kyrgyz (Muslim, Altaic), 18% Russian, 13% Uzbek
Kazakhstan
Kazakhs (46%) – Muslim; Altaic
Russians (34%) – Eastern Orthodox; Indo-European
Tajikistan
Tajik (65%); Uzbek (25%); Russian (3%)
Civil conflict

26. Case Study – Former USSR (cont.)
Caucasus
Azerbaijan
Azeris (90%)
6 million Azeris live in Iran
Armenia
Armenians (90+%)
Dispute with Azeris over boundary
Georgia
Diverse population
Dispute with Ossetians who want to be reunited with N. Ossetia in Russia

27. Ethnicity & Communism
1945 – 1990s communist attitudes and economic cooperation over shadowed the nation-state ideal
Centripetal devices were used to unite diverse ethnicities e.g.:
Socialist realism – economic & political values of Communism
Use of the Russian language
Suppression of religion
However, administrative structures for local government coincided with ethnic territory (see map of Former USSR)
Fall of Communism, ethnicities sought self-determination e.g.: Slovenia (former Yugoslavia)

28. Why do Ethnicities Clash?
Sometimes ethnicities compete in civil wars to dominate national identity
E.g.: Eritrea & Ethiopia; Sudan, Somalia, Lebanon
Sometimes one ethnicity is divided into more than one state
E.g.: Partition in India; Kashmir

29. Case Study Ethiopia & Eritrea
Eritrea became an Italian colony in 1890
Ethiopia, independent for 2,000 years, captured by Italy in 1930
After WWII, Ethiopia gained independence & UN awarded Eritrea to Ethiopia
UN expected Ethiopia to allow Eritrea to run its own affairs – however Ethiopia dissolved Eritrean Parliament and banned use of Tigrinya language
The Eritreans rebelled – 30 year conflict ensued ( )

30. Case Study Ethiopia & Eritrea (cont.)
1991 Eritrean rebels defeated the Ethiopian army
1993 Eritrea became independent
1998 conflict flared up again because of a border dispute
Both countries claimed the disputed area based on treaties with Italy
2000 Ethiopia defeated Eritrea to take control of the disputed area
Ethiopia is a complex multi-ethnic state – Amharahs (Christian), Oromo (Muslim), Tigre (Orthodox)
Eritrea ½ Christian, ½ Muslim

31. Case Study - Sudan
Civil war since 1980s between black Christians & animist rebels in the South and the Arab-Muslim government forces in the North
Black southerners have resisted government attempts to convert this multi-ethnic society into one nationality devoted to Muslim traditions
The government has imposed very strict Muslim laws e.g.: segregation of the sexes, full body clothing
2003 the government cracked down on black Christian rebels in the Darfur region who accused the government of suppression using the Janjaweed militia – humanitarian crisis prevails

32. Case Study - Somalia Somalis are mostly Sunni Muslims speaking Somali
8 million, 6 major ethnic groups (clans)
During 1990s the Isaak clan declared the north a separate state called Somaliland with its own flag and currency
After the collapse of the national govt , various clans and sub-clans seized control of food, property, weapons and portions of the country
Lead by warlords, fighting between clans for control of territory resulted in refugees fleeing – US & Canada sent troops – withdrew in 1994 after peace talks collapsed

33. Ethnic Competition in Lebanon
4 million inhabitants, Lebanon was renown as the financial and recreational centre of the Middle East
Fighting between religious factions since the 1970s has severely damaged Lebanon
Estimates that 60% Muslim, 30% Christian & 10% other
2/3 Lebanese Muslims are Shiite
2/3 Christians are Maronites; 1/6 Greek Orthodox
Druze (7% population) practice blend of Christianity and Islam

34. Ethnic Competition in Lebanon (cont.)
Lebanese Independence (1943), constitution required proportional representation in Chamber of Deputies
President was a Maronite Christian
Premier was a Sunni Muslim
Speaker of the Chamber was a Shiite Muslim
Foreign Minister was a Greek Orthodox
When Christians were in the majority, they controlled business but as Muslims became the majority they demanded economic and political equality
Civil war broke out in 1975 & each religious group formed a militia to guard their territory
Syria, Israel & US sent troops to try to restore peace
Most of Lebanon is controlled by Syria, but recently there has been a move to withdraw Syrian troops from Lebanon

35. Dividing Ethnicities Among More Than One State – Case Study – Indian Partition
Sometimes a new country is created to separate two ethnicities
When the British ended colonial rule in India in 1947, they divided the country into 2 countries, India and Pakistan
Pakistan was not contiguous – West Pakistan & East Pakistan (later Bangladesh) were separated by India

36. Dividing Ethnicities Among More Than One State – Case Study – Indian Partition
Pakistan became a Muslim homeland and India a Hindu homeland because of tension between the 2 ethnicities
The partition of India into 2 states resulted in massive forced migration
6 million Muslims emigrated from India to W. Pakistan & 1 million to E. Pakistan
6 million Hindus came from W. Pakistan & 3.5 million from E. Pakistan
Refugees were killed during the migration as rivalries exploded between the 2 groups

37. Mass Migration Following Partition of India
Photographer Margaret Bourke-White captures the endless sufferings of a nation divided and the subsequent mass migration

38. Kashmir
Pakistan & India never agreed on the location of the boundary in the northern region of Kashmir
Since 1972, the countries have maintained a line of control, with Pakistan administering the northwestern region of Kashmir, and India administering the southeastern portion

39. Kashmir (cont.)
Sikhs
Muslims who are in the majority in both portions of Kashmir, have fought a guerilla war to reunify Kashmir as part of Pakistan or an independent country
India blames Pakistan for the unrest
Both nuclear states has vowed to obtain Kashmir
Sikh extremists in the Punjab desiring a state of their own have added to India’s woes in the NW region of India
Punjab

40. What is Ethnic Cleansing?
Territorial changes after WWII forced ethnicities to migrate
Poles were forced to migrate from Soviet occupied territory; Germans were forced to move form Russia and Poland; Russians were repatriated to the USSR

41. Case Study: Ethnic Cleansing in Yugoslavia

42. Ethnic Cleansing in Yugoslavia (cont.)
Northern portions of the Balkan Peninsula were ruled by the Austro-Hungarian Empire
Southern portions of the Balkan Peninsula were ruled by the Ottoman Empire
After WWI, Yugoslavia was created to unite Balkan ethnicities speaking Slavic languages
, Yugoslavia governed by Tito who brought stability to ethnic groups through communism and a national identity as Yugoslavs

43. Ethnic Cleansing in Yugoslavia (cont.)
Rivalries between ethnicities surfaced after Tito’s death
Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia and Slovenia formed independent countries; only Montenegro and Serbia remained in Yugoslavia
When Yugoslavia’s republics were transformed into countries, ethnicities fought to redefine the boundaries

44. Ethnic Cleansing in Yugoslavia (cont.)
Bosnia
Muslims comprised 40% of B-H
Remainder of B-H was 32% Serbs, 18% Croats
Rather than live in a multi-ethnic state with a Muslim plurality, Serbs & Croats fought to unite B-H with Croatia and Serbia through ethnic cleansing (forced expulsion & some slaughter)
Dayton Accord (1996) divided B-H into 3 regions; one Croatian, one Muslim and one Serbian

45. Balkanization
Balkanization is the breakdown of a state into smaller areas as a result of conflicts amongst its ethnicities e.g.: Yugoslavia
Will ethnic-homogeneity as a result of ethnic cleansing result in peace in the Balkans?

46. Ethnic Cleansing in Rwanda
2 ethnicities
Hutus (farmers)
Tutsi (cattle herders)
Tutsis took control of the kingdom of Rwanda and made the Hutus their serfs
1899 Rwanda & Burundi became German colonies
After WWI, Rwanda became a colony of Belgium

47. Ethnic Cleansing in Rwanda (cont.)
During colonial rule, Tutsis were favoured – allowed to attend university & hold government positions; Hutus excluded
Before Independence in 1962, Hutus killed Tutsis for fear that they would seize control
1994, Tutsi president killed when his plane was shot down by a Hutu
Tutsis, many of whom were exiled in Uganda poured back home, massacring ½ million Hutus
Tutsi casualties also numbered ½ million
3 million Hutus fled into neighbouring states