1. Latino Farm Workers: Understanding Permanence and Diversity in the New Era of Immigration Michael S. McGlade, Ph.D. Western Oregon University

2. How can a working class person migrate from a rural community in Latin America to the U.S.? The cost can be prohibitive Local earnings enable little savings Therefore people and families need help

3. Three ways that migration is initiated from rural communities in Latin America to the United States 1.Recruitment from the United States 2.Spontaneous migration of people who already have $ 3.Civil conflict: S. Mexico, Guatemala, and other Central American regions

4. Bracero Era Labor Recruitment, 1942-1964 1.Emigration was initiated from hundreds of communities in rural, mostly agricultural regions of Mexico. 2.Most young males returned home seasonally and shared knowledge of migration trip, employers, where to live. Often provided financial assistance to new, aspiring migrants. Migration networks were formed that assisted large flows of workers. 3.Thus, the seeds for migration networks that now help millions flow north were sown decades ago by Bracero era recruitment. 4.Many eventually settled out of the migration system, took non- agricultural jobs, and were replaced by new entrants assisted by the Bracero migration networks. 5.Seasonal migration continued to be a large component of farmworker labor supply through 1986.

5. The Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA) Begins the New Era of Permanence in 1986 Seasonal agricultural workers gained documented status IRCA required workers to stay in US after application Not wanting to be alone, workers sent for families Many newly documented workers left farm work for other employment; often less seasonal, urban, and more permanent Thus revolving door process kept up demand for new farmworkers

6. The Effects of Increased Border Restrictions for the Undocumented under IRCA Only a very limited number of people decided not to migrate Migrants eventually get across as coyotes guarantee repeated trips until passage successful Once “making it” inside the US, the difficulties and increased expense of border crossing convince many to stay in U.S. instead of returning “home” seasonally Thus, the paradox of increasing permanence and size of undocumented population, even though a goal of IRCA was to reduce the number of undocumented people in the U.S. More border restrictions in 1998 continued above processes and outcomes

7. Employer Sanctions Change the Relationship of Employers and Workers, and Diversity Increases To avoid risks of federal penalties, and to avoid paperwork, many agricultural employers increased utilization of labor contractors Due to revolving door effect and labor intensification of agriculture in some regions, new laborers were continually needed Coethnic labor contractors and their contacts in Mexico consequently increased recruitment into rural, indigenous areas that previously sent few or no emigrants. New networks formed. Seasonal ag. labor migration within Mexico sourced from indigenous areas also fed into international migration streams. Thus the rise of ethnically indigenous immigration from Oaxaca and other states. Many Mayan Guatemalans fled civil violence of 1980s and 1990s

8. Indigenous Origin “Latinos” in Oregon Come mostly from S. Mexico and Guatemala Guatemalans may not wish to be identified as not being Mexican Are often perceived by outsiders (especially non-Latinos), as Mexicans Many speak little or no Spanish, though may be reluctant to let this be known May not be able to communicate with other people from Indian communities, as native language diversity is high Many perceive themselves as sharing little cultural heritage with Latinos The terms Latino or Hispanic may have little meaning to them Most are marginally literate Tend to be seen as competitors for low wage jobs by other Latinos Guatemalans, in particular, may not be Catholic

9. The Future of Latino Farmworkers Is the American dream alive? How is the second generation doing?