1. Introduction Work motivation can be described as „the desire to take action.“ Definition: „[…]psychological processes that direct, energize and maintain action towards a task, role or project.“

2. Core theoretical perspectives on work motivation Work Motivation Endogenous process theories Expectancy theory Equity Theory Exogenous cause theories Job design Goal setting theory Hybrid perspective Self-determination theory Endogenous Process Theories: psychological mechanisms explaining motivation inside epmloyees‘ heads Exogenous Cause Theories: contextual influences on work motivation that can be changed and altered Hybrid Perspective: equivalent emphasis on endogenous and exogenous causes

3. Expectancy Theory Employees choose to invest effort in courses of action by weighing their relative utilities  probabilities of achieving desired outcome influence on effort: if one of these beliefs is missing, course of action will not be seleceted! Effort: 1.) Expectancy Effort will lead to performance 2.) Instrumentality performance will lead to outcomes 3.) Valence outcomes are important or valued

4. Expectancy Theory Focus: within-person-decision that employees make about whether, where and how to invest their time and energy Controversies & unanswered questions: Expectancy, instrumentality and valence leave consinderable variance unexplained  Theory of planned behavior

5. Theory of planned behavior Planned actions are caused by intentions as a micro- mediator of the belief-behavior-relationship Intentions: function of perceived behavioral control over: 1.) behavior, 2.) attitudes towards behavior 3.) subjectives norms about behavior.

6. Comparison Planned behavior Theory and Expectancy Theory Perceived behavioral control  Expectancy beliefs (planned behavior) (expectancy theory) Employees‘ judgement about whether they are capable of performing if they expend effort Behavior evaluated favorably  instrumentality & valence beliefs Behavior will lead to favorable outcome

7. Comparison Planned behavior Theory and Expectancy Theory Planned behavior theory adds subjective norms or social expectations and pressure to engage in the behavior  Personal outcomes but also social reward (appproval, respect, community) or social punishment (disapproval, disrespect, alienation)

8. Limitations of Expectancy Theory Over calculative: caricature of how employees make decisions and experience motivation (Who actually calculates probablities?)  incorporation of „hot“ affective components which influence expectancy, instrumentality and valence judgements No specification of nature and source of variations in employees‘ beliefs and judgements (enjoying experience of expending effort; performance itself as reward even without external outcomes) No explanation of how employees update and change their beliefs over time

9. Conclusion Expectancy Theory Focus on identifying key psychological forces that guide decisions about effort and understanding their consequences Diagnosing and resolving motivational problems in organizations NOT focussing on specifying causes or fluctuations

10. Equity Theory Placing motivation in a social context Central assumption: employees are motivated, when their inputs (effort, knowledge, skill, loyalty..) are matched by outcomes (pay, bonuses, benefits, recogntion) which creates a sense of equity or fairness

11. Equity Theory Outcomes ≠ Input  Distress, perception of inequity  employee tries to reduce distress Feeling under-rewarded: reduction of input, attempting to reduce other‘s inputs, seeking to increase their outcomes, aiming to decrease coworkers outcomes Feeling over-rewarded: increasing inputs or reducing outcomes

12. Judgement of equity Evaluation of input-outcome ratios through comparisons Possible comparisons: 1.Outcome vs. Input (Input = effort, ability, seniority) 2.Input-outcome ratios and other input-outcome ratios (including my past i.-o. ratios and other people‘s i.-o. ratios) Social comparison  motivation suffers, when others are perceived to maintain more favorable i.-o. ratios

13. Over- and under-rewarding employees can be detrimental to motivation.  Negative motivational and behavioral effects of under-reward inequity  Mixed results about consequences of over-reward inequity

14. New approach: including understanding individual differences in equity sensivity Equity preferencesbenevolent Preferring a lower input-outcome ratio compared to others Under-reward inequity leads to higher motivation than for equity sensitive/entitled employees Equity sensitive Preferring an equal input- outcome ratio compared to others entitled Preferring a higher input- outcome ratio compared to others Perceiving distress when receiving lower outcomes than coworkers

15. Competing predictions between equity and expectancy theory Perceived under-reward inequity Equity Theory: high instrumentality  feeling under-rewarded  distress caused by perceived inequity  reduction of effort to create a more appropriate balance between input and outcome Expectancy Theory: high instrumentality  feeling under-rewarded  motivation to achieve higher performance  confidence, that higher performance will result in outcomes they feel they deserve

16. Competing predictions between equity and expectancy theory Equity Theory High instrumentalityFeeling under-rewarded Distress caused by perceived inequity Reduction of effort to create a more appropriate balance between input and outcomes Expectancy Theory High instrumentalityFeeling under-rewarded Motivation to achieve higher performance confidence, that higher performance will result in outcomes they feel they deserve