1. Development
Chapter 8

2. Nature, Nurture, & Prenatal Development
Learning Outcomes
Compare and contrast the influence of nature versus nurture
Describe developmental research techniques
Discuss prenatal development
Developmental psychology: branch of psychology that studies the patterns of growth and change that occur throughout life.

3. Nature, Nurture, & Prenatal Development
Nature-nurture issue: the issue of the degree to which environment (nurture) and heredity (nature) influence behavior
No longer a question of nature versus nurture because both factors interact to produce developmental patterns and outcomes
Now we ask, how and to what degree do nature and nurture produce their effects?
Developmental psychology studies the patterns of growth and change that occur throughout life.
The question is: How can we distinguish between the environmental causes of behavior (parents, siblings, family, etc.) and hereditary causes (based on genetic make-up)?
“Nature” refers to the hereditary factors and “nurture” refers to the environmental factors. Developmental psychologists today agree that both nature and nurture interact to produce specific developmental patterns and outcomes.

4. Nature vs. Nurture
Experimentally control genetic makeup of laboratory animals, then study environmental influences
Identical twins (share 100% of their genetic makeup) and non-twin siblings raised apart: similarities as adults show importance of heredity
Adopted children: similarities with biological children in same family show importance of environment
If identical twins (those who are genetically identical) display different patterns of development, those differences have to be attributed to variations in the environment in which the twins were raised.
Researchers can also take the opposite tack. Instead of concentrating on people with similar genetic backgrounds who are raised in different environments, they may consider people raised in similar environments who have totally dissimilar genetic backgrounds (adopted and biological children in the same family group).

5. Developmental Research Techniques
Cross-sectional research: comparing people of different ages at the same point in time
Longitudinal research: studying the same people as they age
Sequential research: combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal; considers different age groups, examined at several points in time
Cross-sectional research has limitations. For example, we can’t be sure that the differences in IQ scores we might find in a group are due to age differences; they may reflect differences in the educational attainment of the cohorts represented.
A cohort is a group of people who grow up at similar times, in similar places, and in similar conditions.
To make up for the limitations in both cross-sectional and longitudinal research, an alternative strategy has been developed. Sequential research combines the two other techniques. This technique allows developmental psychologists to tease out the specific effects of age changes from other possibly influential factors.

6. Prenatal Development Basics of genetics
Chromosomes: rod-shaped structures that contain all basic hereditary information; 23 pairs, one chromosome of each pair from the mother and one from the father
Genes
Zygote: the new cell formed by the union of an egg and sperm

8. Prenatal Development
Embryo: a developed zygote that has a heart, a brain, and other organs
Fetus: a developing individual, from eight weeks after conception until birth
Age of viability: the point at which a fetus can survive if born prematurely (about 22 weeks)

9. Prenatal Development
Sensitive/critical periods: during prenatal development, time when the fetus is particularly susceptible to certain kinds of stimuli

10. Genetic Influences on the Fetus
Phenylketonuria (PKU): child cannot produce enzyme needed for normal development; causes intellectual disabilities
Sickle-cell anemia: causes abnormally shaped red blood cells
Down syndrome: zygote receives extra chromosome at moment of conception; one of the causes of mental retardation

11. Prenatal Environment Influences
Teratogens: environmental agents (drugs, chemicals, etc.) that produce a birth defect
Mother’s nutrition
Mother’s illness
Alcohol & nicotine use
Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)/fetal alcohol effects (FAE)

12. Infancy and Childhood Learning Outcomes
Describe the major competencies of newborns
Explain the milestones of physical, social, and cognitive development during childhood
Neonate: a newborn child

13. The Extraordinary Newborn
Reflexes: automatic, involuntary responses to incoming stimuli
Neonate born with rooting, sucking, gag, startle, & Babinski reflexes
Sensory development: neonates can follow moving objects within their field of vision, show some depth perception, discriminate facial expressions, recognize their mothers’ voices at 3 days old, and recognize different tastes and smells
A newborn is known as a neonate. While a baby doesn’t look like the perfect picture of a newborn right after birth, the neonate makes a remarkable change during the first two weeks after birth, as it takes on the more familiar appearance.
Even more astounding are the capabilities the neonate displays from the moment of birth. These capabilities grow at an amazing rate over the ensuing months. Many of the reflexes that a neonate is born with are critical to survival and unfold naturally as part of an infant’s ongoing maturation.

14. Infancy through Middle Childhood
Attachment: positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual, usually a caregiver (Harlow’s research with monkeys)
Classified as secure, avoidant, ambivalent, or disorganized-disoriented
Father’s role: nature of attachment is similar to mother’s, but type of play/interaction may be different (fathers engage in more physical activities, while mothers are more verbal)

15. Infancy through Middle Childhood
Child care outside the home can be beneficial, especially for children from disadvantaged homes, if it is a high-quality program
Parenting styles
Authoritarian: rigid, punitive, demand obedience, require a lot from their children
Permissive: relaxed or inconsistent direction, require little from their children

16. Infancy through Middle Childhood
Parenting Styles (cont’d)
Authoritative: firm, set limits, use reasoning, explain things, encourage independence
Uninvolved: show little interest, emotionally detached, believe parenting is only providing food, clothing, and shelter
Specific kinds of parenting styles may, in part, be brought about by the child’s temperament (basic, innate disposition with which the child is born)

17. Infancy through Middle Childhood
Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development: change in our interactions and understanding of each other and our knowledge and understanding of ourselves as members of society; passing through each stage necessitates resolution of a crisis or conflict
Trust vs. mistrust (birth – 1 ½): develop trust if physical and psychological needs are met
Autonomy vs. shame-and-doubt (1 – 3): develop autonomy if exploration and freedom are encouraged

18. Figure 3

19. Erikson’s Theory (cont’d)
Initiative vs. guilt (3 – 6): resolved positively if parents react positively to children’s attempts at independence
Industry vs. inferiority (6 – 12): resolved positively if child shows increased competency in social interactions and academic skills
Cognitive development: the process by which a child’s understanding of the world changes as a function of age and experience; intellectual development
Erickson suggests that passage through each of the stages necessitates the resolution of a crisis or conflict. Although each crisis is never resolved entirely – life becomes increasingly complex as we grow older – it has to be resolved sufficiently to equip us to deal with demands during the following stage of development.
Some theorists have suggested that children cannot understand certain ideas and concepts until they reach a particular stage of cognitive development. In contrast to the theories of physical and social development such as those of Erikson, theories of cognitive development seek to explain the quantitative and qualitative intellectual advances that occur during development.

20. Infancy through Middle Childhood
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
Sensorimotor stage (birth – 2): understanding comes from touching, sucking, chewing, and manipulating objects; around 9 months, develop object permanence (the awareness that objects and people continue to exist even if they are out of sight)
Preoperational stage (2 – 7): development of language and use of symbols; still use egocentric thought (views the world entirely from his or her own perspective)
No theory of cognitive development has had more impact than that of Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget. Piaget (1970) suggested that children around the world proceed through a series of 4 stages in a fixed order.
He maintained that these stages differed not only in the quantity of the information acquired in each stage but in the quality of knowledge and understanding as well.
He suggested that movement from one stage to the next occurs when a child reaches an appropriate level of maturation and is exposed to relevant types of experiences. Without having such experiences, said Piaget, children can’t reach their highest level of cognitive growth.

21. Infancy through Middle Childhood
Piaget’s theory (cont’d)
Concrete operational stage (7 – 12): loss of egocentric thinking, logical thought develops, but difficulty understanding abstract, hypothetical questions; beginning marked by understanding of conservation (amount, volume, or length of an object doesn’t change when its shape changes; ex.: amount of liquid in short, fat glass = amount in tall, skinny glass)
Formal operational stage (12 – adulthood): abstract, formal, logical thought

22. Infancy through Middle Childhood
Many psychologists believe changes in information processing (the way in which people take in, use, and store information) are how children develop their cognitive abilities
Metacognition: an awareness and understanding of one’s own cognitive processes

23. Infancy through Middle Childhood
Vygotsky’s view of cognitive development
Culture in which we are raised significantly affects cognitive development
Zone of proximal development (ZPD): the level at which a child can almost, but not fully, comprehend or perform a task on his or her own; if information falls within the ZPD, children can master it

24. Adolescence: Becoming an Adult
Learning Outcomes
Summarize the major physical transitions that characterize adolescence
Explain moral and cognitive development in adolescents
Discuss social development in adolescents
Adolescence: the developmental stage between childhood and adulthood.
The physical changes that occur at the start of adolescence result largely from the secretions of various hormones, and they affect virtually every aspect of an adolescent’s life.
Not since infancy has development been so dramatic. Weight and height increase rapidly because of a growth spurt that typically begins around age 10 for girls and age 12 for boys.
Adolescents may grow as much as 5 inches in one year.

25. Physical Development
Puberty: the period at which maturation of the sexual organs occurs, beginning at about age 11 or 12 for girls (start of menstruation) and 13 or 14 for boys (spermarche: first ejaculation)

26. Moral and Cognitive Development
Developmental psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg theorized that people move through a 3-level sequence of moral reasoning in a fixed order. However, he contended that few people ever reach the highest level of moral reasoning.

27. Social Development
Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development: the last four stages
Identity vs. role confusion (adolescence): a time of major testing to determine one’s unique qualities; an attempt to discover their identity (who each of us is, what our roles are, and what we are capable of)
Intimacy vs. isolation (early adulthood): resolved positively if the person develops intimate relationships on physical, intellectual, and emotional levels

28. Social Development Erikson’s theory (cont’d)
Generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood): taking stock of one’s contributions to family and society; resolved successfully if the person feels positive about the continuity of life
Ego-integrity vs. despair (later adulthood until death): reviewing life’s accomplishments and failures; resolved successfully if one feels a sense of accomplishment and has no regrets
Most young people go through adolescence without the stereotypical turmoil

29. Social Development
Suicide is the third-leading cause of death for adolescents in the U.S.
Males are five times more likely to commit suicide than females, but females attempt suicide more often
Rate higher among whites than nonwhites
Possible causes: depression, social anxiety, family background, adjustment difficulties, parental conflict, alcohol and drug abuse

30. Adulthood Learning Outcomes Explain physical development in adulthood
Discuss social development in adulthood
State the impact of marriage, children, and divorce on families
Discuss the later years of adulthood
Psychologists generally agree that early adulthood begins around age 20 and lasts until about age 40 – 45, with middle adulthood beginning then and continuing until around age 65.
Despite the enormous importance of these periods of life in terms of both the accomplishments that occur in them and their overall length (a total span of about 45 years), they have been studied less than has any other stage.

31. Adulthood Learning Outcomes (cont’d)
Explain the physical changes that occur in late adulthood
Identify the cognitive changes that occur in late adulthood
Discuss the social aspects of late adulthood
Describe how people can adjust to death

32. Physical Development
Menopause: usually occurring in late 40s or early 50s, the period during which women stop menstruating and are no longer fertile
Symptoms can be treated through hormone therapy (HT), replacing estrogen and progesterone, but it can be dangerous: increased risk of breast cancer, blood clots, and coronary heart disease
For most people, early adulthood marks the peak of physical health. From about 18 – 25 years of age, people’s strength is greatest, their reflexes are quicker, and their chances of dying from disease are quite slim. In addition, reproductive capabilities are at their highest level.
During middle adulthood, people gradually become aware of changes in their bodies. People often experience weight gain, the sense organs become less sensitive, and reactions to stimuli are slower.
The major biological change that occurs in middle adulthood pertains to reproductive capabilities. On average, during their late 40s or early 50s, women begin menopause, during which they stop menstruating and are no longer fertile.
For men, the aging process during middle adulthood is somewhat more subtle. No male menopause exists and in fact, men remain fertile and are capable of fathering children until well into late adulthood.

33. Social Development
Midlife transition: for some, a time of questioning their lives, they are influenced by the idea that life will end & question past accomplishments; generally happens in early 40s
Some experience a midlife crisis (dissatisfaction with life), but most go through middle age relatively smoothly

34. Marriage, Children, and Divorce
Average age of marriage is higher; more cohabitation before marriage
About half of all first marriages end in divorce
Almost 75% of married women with school-age children are employed outside the home; 55% of those with children under age 6

35. The Later Years: Growing Old
Gerontology: the study of older adults & aging
Gerontologists focus on the period of life that starts around age 65. They are making important contributions to clarifying the capabilities of older adults. Their work is demonstrating that significant developmental processes continue even during old age.

36. Physical Changes in Late Adulthood
Genetic preprogramming theories of aging: human cells have a built-in time limit to their reproduction; after a certain time they are no longer able to divide
Wear-and-tear theories of aging: mechanical functions of the body stop working efficiently as you age
Many physical changes are brought about by the aging process. The most obvious are those in appearance: hair thinning and turning grey; skin wrinkling and folding, and sometimes a slight loss of height as the spine grows more fragile.
More subtle changes also occur in the body’s biological functioning. For example, sensory capabilities decrease as a result of aging: vision, hearing, smell, and taste become less sensitive. Reaction time slows, and physical stamina changes.

37. Cognitive Changes
Fluid intelligence (information-processing skills such as memory, calculations, and analogy solving) shows decline in late adulthood, but crystallized intelligence (accumulation of information, skills, and strategies learned through experience) remain steady
Memory loss is not inevitable with aging

38. Cognitive Changes
Alzheimer’s disease: progressive brain disorder that leads to gradual and irreversible decline in cognitive abilities

39. The Social World of Late Adulthood
Disengagement theory of aging: aging produces a gradual withdrawal from the world on physical, psychological, and social levels
Activity theory of aging: successful aging means maintaining the interests and activities you had during middle age
Life review: process by which people examine and evaluate their lives
Just as the view that old age predictably means mental decline has proved to be wrong, so has the view that late adulthood inevitably brings loneliness.
People in late adulthood most often see themselves as functioning members of society, with only a small number reporting that loneliness is a serious problem.
Late adulthood brings significant challenges. People who’ve spent their adult lives working enter retirement. Many people must face the death of their spouse. There are also significant changes in economic well-being.
There is no single way to age successfully. People in late adulthood are not just marking time until death. Rather, old age is a time of continued growth and development, as important as any other period in life.

40. Adjusting to Death
Elisabeth Kubler-Ross’s five stages of dealing with one’s own impending death
Denial: resist the idea they are dying
Anger: angry at people in good health around them, at medical professionals, at God
Bargaining: trying to postpone death
Depression: bargaining will not work; “preparatory grief” for their own death
Acceptance: made peace with themselves; usually unemotional and uncommunicative