2. Comparative Criminal Justice
Comparative criminologists study crime on a cross-national level.
Their work helps us evaluate and improve our own system.

3. Ethnocentrism and the Study of Criminal Justice
Criminal justice in America tends to be ethnocentric.
Ethnocentrics believe in the superiority of their own social or ethnic group and culture.
Ethnocentricity relates to behavior, values, beliefs, and customs.

4. Some countries are not as open with their data and information.
Problems with Data
Some countries are not as open with their data and information.
Even studying criminal justice is taboo in some places.
Some research methods may be considered disrespectful.

5. Problems with Data
Difficulties in comparing international crime data due to:
Definitional differences
Social, cultural, and economic differences increase the difficulty.
Diverse reporting practices
INTERPOL & UN are the only international organizations to regularly collect crime statistics.
Political and other influences on reporting statistics to international agencies

6. Islamic Criminal Justice
Since September 11, 2001:
Islamic Law has been the subject of much discussion in the United States.
Islamic law refers to legal ideas based on the teachings of Islam.
It is NOT the same thing as jihad (Muslim holy war) or Islamic fundamentalism.
It is NOT intrinsically related to acts of terrorism committed by misguided zealots of Islamic background.

7. Islamic Criminal Justice
Islamic law
Descends directly from the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad.
Muhammad aimed to teach men what to do and how to behave in order to achieve salvation.
Is a system of duties and rituals founded on legal and moral obligations.

8. Four Major Aspects of Islamic Criminal Justice
Islamic justice means:
Sacred trust—a duty to be discharged sincerely and honestly.
Mutual respect of one human being by another.
Social bond—transforms society into a brotherhood in which everyone becomes a keeper of everyone else and each is held accountable for the welfare of all.
Command from God dictates that whosever violates God’s commands be subject to strict punishments according to Islamic tradition and belief.

9. The Hudad Crimes Making war on Allah or His messengers Theft
Islamic law recognizes seven Hudad crimes, crimes based on religions strictures. Regarded as offenses against God, the Hudad crimes are:
Making war on Allah or His messengers
Theft
Adultery or fornication
False accusation of adultery or fornication
“Corruption on earth”
Drinking alcohol
Highway robbery

10. The Hudad Crimes
Islamic law mandates strict punishment for moral failures and property crimes, like:
Flogging for intercourse outside of marriage.
Flogging and stoning to death for adultery.
Hand amputation for some thieves.
Whipping for kissing outside of marriage or cursing.

11. The Tazir Crimes
Crimes other than Hudad crimes are called Tazir crimes.
These are minor violations of Islamic law and are regarded as offenses against society, not God.
These crimes require quesas (retribution) or diya (fines).
Quesas offenses generally require physical punishment up to and including death.
Manslaughter
Murder
Assault
Maiming

12. Islamic Courts Islamic Courts typically exist on three levels:
The upper level hears cases involving potential for serious punishments such as death, exile, or amputation.
The lower level deals with relatively minor matters such as traffic violations and violations of city ordinance.
The specialty level hears cases dealing with crimes against the government, narcotics offenses, state security, and corruption.

13. Islamic Courts Within Islamic Courts Appeals are rarely granted
Women are treated differently from men
The testimony of a man is worth more. The testimony of two “virtuous” women equals that of one man.

14. The United Nations (UN)
The UN is the largest and most inclusive international body in the world.
Consists of 185 member states
Is located in New York City
Is very interested in international crime prevention and world criminal justice systems

15. The United Nations (UN)
Activities, interests, and recommendations of the United Nations include:
International Bill of Human Rights
Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners
UN Code of Conduct for Law Enforcement Officials

16. The United Nations (UN)
The UN World Crime Surveys
Office for Drug Control and Crime Prevention (ODCCP)
International congress on crime (held every five years)
2000 UN Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children

17. International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL)
INTERPOL is an international law enforcement support organization.
Began operations in 1946
Has 182 member nations
Headquartered in Lyons, France
The U.S. INTERPOL office is called the U.S. National Central Bureau and is part of the U.S. Dept. of Justice

18. International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL)
INTERPOL acts as a clearinghouse for information on suspects and offenses operating across national boundaries.
INTERPOL
Does NOT have field investigators
Does NOT have arrest or search and seizure powers
Facilitates, coordinates, and encourages police cooperation as a means of combating international crime

19. International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL)
Recent and current activities include:
Adopting the Budapest Anti-Terrorism Resolution
Holding its first Global Conference on Preventing Bio-Terrorism (2005)
Developing a centralized international forensic DNA database
Creating an international framework for disaster victim identification

20. European Police Office (Europol)
Europol is the integrated police intelligence gathering and dissemination arm of the member nations of the European Union (EU).
Its mission is to improve the effectiveness and cooperation of law enforcement agencies within EU member states.
The ultimate goal is preventing and combating terrorism, drug trafficking, trafficking of radioactive and nuclear substances, money laundering, trafficking in human beings, and other serious forms of international organized crime.

21. International Criminal Court (ICC)
The ICC, established in 2000, was created to deal with crimes of international concern (genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity).

22. Globalization
Transnational crime partly stems from globalization—the internationalization of trade, services, investment, information, and other forms of human social activity.

23. Globalization and Crime
Globalization of crime and terrorism requires enhanced international coordination of law enforcement efforts.
U.S. efforts to thwart globalization of crime and terrorism include:
Expansion of American law enforcement activities abroad
Passage of the Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act (TVPA, 2003)
Extradition
Forcible removal of criminal suspects from foreign jurisdictions refusing extradition

24. Transnational Crimes
Transnational crimes are unlawful activities undertaken and supported by organized criminal groups operating across national boundaries.
Transnational organized crime activities include:
Drug trafficking
Money laundering
Terrorism
Alien smuggling
Weapons trafficking
Human trafficking
Fraud and corruption

25. Transnational Crimes
According to the UN, an offense can be considered transnational if any of the following are met:
It is committed in more than one country.
It is committed in one country but a substantial part of its preparation, planning, direction, or control takes place in another country.
It is committed in one country but involves an organized criminal group that engages in criminal activities in more than one country.
It is committed in one country but has substantial effects in another country.

26. Extradition
Extradition—the surrendering by one jurisdiction to another of an accused or convicted individual—is one of the tools in the fight against transnational crime. However, not all countries are willing to extradite suspects wanted in the United States.

27. Terrorism
There is no single, universally accepted definition of terrorism that is applicable to all places and all circumstances.
The FBI describes terrorism as: “a violent act, or act dangerous to human life, in violation of the criminal laws of the United States or of any state to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives.”

28. Features of Terrorism
According to criminologist Gwynn Nettler, all forms of terrorism share six characteristics:
No rules—no moral limitations upon terrorist violence
No innocents—no distinctions between soldiers and civilians
Economy—kill 1, frighten 10,000
Publicity—which encourages terrorism
Meaning—makes terrorists significant
No clarity—terrorists goals unclear

29. Two Major Forms of Terrorism
Domestic Terrorism
…the unlawful use of force or violence by a group or an individual who is based and operates entirely within the United States and its territories without foreign direction and whose acts are directed at elements of the U.S. Government or population.
International Terrorism
…the unlawful use of force or violence by a group or an individual who has some connection to a foreign power or whose activities transcend national boundaries, committed against people or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives.

30. Domestic Terrorism Examples of domestic terrorists:
Theodore Kaczynski—“The Unabomber”
Timothy McVeigh—The Oklahoma City Bombing
Eric Robert Rudolph—The Olympic Bombing in Atlanta’s Centennial Park
Today’s domestic terrorist threats include survivalist and separatist groups.

31. International Terrorism
Examples of international terrorism:
The 1988 bombing of Pan Am Flight 103
The 1993 bombing of the World Trade Center
The September 11th Attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon using commandeered aircraft
Some believe that the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq and international efforts against al-Queda may have greatly weakened the organization; others disagree.

32. Cyberterrorism A new kind of terrorism:
Cyberterrorism makes use of high technology, especially computers and the Internet, in the planning and carrying out of terrorist attacks.
Targets include economic, business, and military infrastructure.

33. Narcoterrorism
The link between drug traffickers and terrorists is called narcoterrorism.
Narcoterrorism refers to a political alliance formed between terrorist organizations and drug-supplying cartels.
The cartels provide financing for the terrorists, who in turn provide quasi-military protection to the drug dealers.

34. Causes of Terrorism
International terrorist organizations build on a process from which underlying conditions such as poverty, political corruption, religious conflict, and ethnic strife provide terrorists with the opportunity to legitimize their cause, justify their actions, and demand political change.
FIGURE 17–1 The building process for international terrorist organizations.

35. The Anti-Terrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act (1996):
Bans fundraising in U.S. for international terrorist groups
Provides funds for terrorism-fighting measures
Allows deportation of foreign terrorism suspects
Permits the use of the death penalty for certain terrorist acts
Makes it a federal crime to plan overseas terrorist attacks from within the U.S.
Requires taggants to be added to plastic explosives to facilitate identification

36. Controlling Terrorism
The USA Patriot Act of 2001
Title VIII, titled “Strengthening the Criminal Laws Against Terrorism,” created a number of new terrorism offenses under federal law.

37. Antiterrorism Committees and Reports
In the past 7- 8 years, a number of released reports and studies released have focused on threats, intelligence gathering, weaknesses, and preparedness for the possibility of future attacks.
In 2005, members of the 9/11 Commission publicly criticized the lack of progress made by federal officials charged with implementing safeguards to prevent future terrorist attacks.

38. Department of Homeland Security (DHS)
Homeland Security Act of 2002
Created the federal Department of Homeland Security, charged with protecting Americans and critical infrastructure from terrorist attacks.

39. Department of Homeland Security (DHS)
The DHS coordinates the activities of 22 disparate domestic agencies by placing administration of those agencies under five “directorates,” or departmental divisions.
Five divisions:
Border and Transportation Security
Emergency Preparedness and Response
Science and Technology
Information Analysis and Infrastructure Protection
Management

40. Department of Homeland Security (DHS)
Several other agencies have been folded into the DHS or created under it, including:
Coast Guard
Secret Service
Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services
Bureau of Customs and Border Protection
Bureau of Immigration and Customs Enforcement
Office of State and Local Government Coordination
Office of Private Sector Liaison
Office of the Inspector General

41. The National Strategy for Combating Terrorism (2003)
The National Strategy aims to:
Identify, locate, and destroy terrorist organizations.
Deny sponsorship, support, and sanctuary to terrorist by helping other nations fulfill their anti-terrorist responsibilities.
Diminish the underlying conditions that terrorists seek to exploit.
Defend U.S. citizens and interests at home and abroad through strong security measures.

42. The National Strategy for Combating Terrorism
FIGURE 17–2 Reducing the scope and capability of terrorist organizations.

43. The Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004
This Act facilitated the creation of the National Counterterrorism Center (NCTC) under the newly created position of national intelligence director (NID).
On matters of national-security intelligence, the NID acts as the principal adviser to:
the president
the National Security Counsel
the Homeland Security Counsel
The NCTC is the primary U.S. organization of integrating and analyzing terrorism intelligence and counterterrorism planning.

44. Foreign Terrorist Organizations (FTOs)
The U.S. Department of the State may designate any foreign group that threatens the security of U.S. nationals or the national security of the U.S. as a foreign terrorist organization (FTO).
After being designated as an FTO, a number of legal consequences follow, including denying visas to members and blocking funds or other material support.
As of mid-2009, 44 designated FTOs.

45. State-Sponsored Terrorism
The State Department also has the authority to designate selected foreign governments as state sponsors of international terrorism.
As of mid-2007, Cuba, Iran, North Korea, Sudan, and Syria were designated as state sponsors of international terrorism.
Iran remains the most active state sponsor.

46. The Future of International Terrorism
International terrorist groups will:
Remain active throughout the world
Target more than just the U.S.
Become increasingly sophisticated
Seek to achieve mass casualties
Look to weak countries as new breeding grounds

47. The Future of International Terrorism
Many observers conclude that the American justice system is still not fully prepared to deal with the threat represented by domestic and international terrorism.