1. A Brief History of Parole
Revenge of the “Rehabilitative Ideal” and that scoundrel Martinson

2. What is Parole? A process of discretionary release from prison
Parole Boards
A process of post-release supervision
Parole Supervision

3. Early Precursors to Parole
Parole “born” in the 19th century, as governments moved away from corporal punishments (to “reform”)
“Prisons” born first, and starting to become the punishment of choice.
Spain: (1835) Manuel Montesinos
Germany (1842) Georg Obermaier
England (1837) Alexander Maconochie
And a little love from Sir Walter Crofton (Ireland)

4. The Grammy goes to…. Maconochie/Crofton
Alexander Maconochie
“Warden” for English penal colony at Norfolk Island (off coast of Austrailia)
Criticized “determinate” prison terms
Developed the “mark system”
Good conduct, labor, study… got “marks”
Marks got you privilege, and eventually release
Fired in 1844
BUT, in 1853, England substitutes prison for transportation, and legalizes “ticket-of-leave” system
Hired (1849) and Fired (1851) again in a different prison

5. Sir Walter Crofton Administrator of Irish Prison System
Implements Mac’s plan in 1854
Tickets of leave only for “reformation”
Achievement (industry/education), positive attitudes
The “Irish System”
Strict Imprisonment
Intermediate
Ticket-of-leave
Closer to “parole” than the English ticket (conditions, supervision)

6. Meanwhile, back in the U.S.
National Prison Association
Importance of 1870 Meeting in Cincinnati
“Irish System” part of “Declaration of Principles”
Principles = Rehabilitative Ideal
Indeterminate Sentences, Parole, “mark system”
Zebulon “the Wolverine” Brockway
Elmira Reformatory (NY) in 1876
Indeterminate sentence x parole
Grades of Classification (first--good--to third--bad)
Parole supervision for six months
“Volunteer Guardians”

7. The Rise of Parole s
Indeterminate Sentencing x Parole spread rapidly
NY first state (1907)
All but three states by 1927
This system reaches its peak in the 1970s
By 1977, 72% of offenders released on parole
Prisoner Reform (in reality?)
Institutional Control
Solution to Prison Crowding

8. The Attack on Parole Parole not liked by the American public
But, polls as early as 1934 reveal this (still holds today)…why in the 1970s?
But, danger of polling questions?
The 1970s revolution
Conservatives (chance to pounce)
JQ Wilson (deterrence/incapacitation only option)
Parole as “coddling criminals”
Liberals
End racial/gender bias, boards as political fodder
Fogel, Von Hirsch = “Justice Model”

9. The Results of the Attack
Maine eliminates parole in 1976
By the end of 1998, 14 states abolish
1984: Feds phase out (still “supervised release”)
21 additional states limit discretion of parole board
Only 15 states still give broad discretion
Only 28% of inmates released by parole boards in 1997
End result?
No increase in time-served (other valves)
Truth in sentencing has had an effect
Both prison time and parole time have increased

10. Changes in the Nature of Parole Supervision
Like probation, parole supervisors embraced the “surveillance and control” model in the 1980s
Whither counseling, job training, housing?
Offenders as in need of “attitude adjustment
POs absolved of responsibility for change
Drug testing, but no drug tretment

11. Current forms of Release
Mandatory Release
Conditional supervision if goodtime credits or other “early release”
If full sentence, (expiration) no supervision, unless…
Supervision included in sentence
Federal Guidelines = “supervised release”
Discretionary Parole Release