1. Cognition: Memory and its Parts Thinking and language

2. Memory Memory: A system that encodes, stores and retrieves information
While we are learning more about memory every day, psychologists still are unsure exactly what parts of the brain are involved and where it is all stored.

3. Memory’s Three Basic Tasks
According to the information-processing model, the human brain takes essentially meaningless information and turns it into meaningful patterns.
It does this through three steps:
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval

4. 3 Basic parts: encoding
Encoding: the modification of information to fit the preferred format for the memory system.
In most cases, encoding is automatic and happens without our awareness. Other encoding, however, like these notes, require extra encoding effort called rehearsal to make the memory useful.

5. Encoding
The more time we spend learning novel information, the more we remember. 20 15 10 5 8 16 24 32 42 53 64
Time in minutes
taken to relearn
list on day 2
Number of repetitions of list on day 1
Using 16 unrelated 3 letter sequences

6. Encoding-3 types
When we are exposed to stimuli and encode information, we do it in three ways:
Semantic Encoding
encoding of meaning
including meaning of words
Acoustic Encoding
encoding of sound
especially sound of words
Visual Encoding
encoding of picture images

7. Encoding-Levels of Processing
Processing a word by its meaning (semantic encoding) produces better recognition of it lat a later time.

8. 3 basic parts: storage
Storage: the retention of encoding material over time.
In terms of storing material, we have three stages of memory
Sensory Memory
Working Memory (short-term memory)
Long-term Memory

9. Synaptic Changes and storage
One physical change in the brain during memory storage is in the synapses.
Memories begin as impulses whizzing through the brain circuits, leaving a semi-permanent trace.
The more a memory is utilized, the more potential strength that neuron has, called long-term potential.
Neural basis for learning and remembering associations

10. Strengthening Ltp
Research suggests that the best way to remember things is to study them and then sleep!
Once LTP has occurred, even passing an electrical current through the brain will not erase well stored memories.
More recent memories will be wiped out
People who have a concussion and cannot remember what happened just before or after the injury have not had a chance to “consolidate” their memories to the long-term

11. 3 basic parts: retrieval
Retrieval: The locating and recovering of information from memory.
While some memories return to us in a split second, other seemed to be hidden deeper, and still others are never “recovered” correctly.

12. Eidetic imagery
Eidetic imagery is a technical term for a photographic memory.
Eidetic imagery can recall a memory in minute detail and portray the most interesting and meaningful parts most accurately. These images can last as short as a brief moment, or as long as days.
Eidetic imagery tends to be more common in children, and seems to decline as a person’s language abilities increase

13. Attention to important
3 stages of memory
We encode information and store it in one of three types of memory, depending on what we need the information for.
Our memory works like an assembly line, and before information can make it to our long-term memory, it must first pass through sensory memory and working memory.
External
events
Sensory
memory
Short-term
Long-term
Sensory input
Attention to important
or novel information
Encoding
Retrieving

14. Sensory memory
Sensory memory is the shortest of our memories and generally holds sights, sounds, smells, textures and other sensory information for a fraction of a second.
Sensory memory holds a large amount of information, far more than ever reaches consciousness.
Sensory memories lasts just long enough to dissolve into the next one, giving us the impression of a constant flow.

15. Sensory Memory
Not all sensory memory consists of images, each sensory receptor has its own sensory register.
Also, sensory images have no meaning associated with them, that is the job of the next stage, working memory.
Visual Stimulation-iconic memory Auditory Stimulation-echoic memory Tactile Stimulation-tactile sensory memory Olfactory Stimulation-olfactory memory Gustatory Stimulation-gustatory memory
Working Memory
Long Term Memory

16. Working Memory
Working memory is often known as short term memory. It is the place where we sort and encode information before transferring it to long-term memory, or forgetting it.
Generally, it holds information for about 20 seconds, far longer than sensory memory.
Most research suggest that we can hold seven pieces of information in our working memory, though it varies slightly.

18. Working memory
Working memory is subject to two limitations: limited capacity and short duration.
We do have coping mechanisms, however:
Chunking
Rehearsal

19. Chunking A chunk is any memory pattern or meaningful unit of memory.
By creating these chunks, a process called chunking, we can fit more information into the seven available slots of working memory.
Example: vs

20. Working memory: location
While the location in the brain of all three stages of memory are still not fully understood, the likely location for the working memory is in the frontal cortex.

21. Long term memory
As far as anyone knows, there is no limit to the duration or capacity of the long term memory.
Long term memory is essentially all of your knowledge of yourself and the world around you. Unless an injury or illness occurs, this memory is limitless.

22. Structure and Function of LTM
Long Term Memory
Declarative Memory
(Explicitly Memory)
(knowing what)
Semantic Memory:
-language
-Facts
-General Knowledge
Episodic Memory
-Events
-Personal Experiences
Procedural Memory
(Implicit Memory)
(knowing how)
Includes:
-Motor skills
-Operant Conditioning
-Classical Conditioning

23. Long Term memory
Procedural memory (implicit) is the part of long term memory where we store memories of how things are done.

24. Long Term memory
Declarative memory (explicit) is the part of long term memory where we store specific information such as facts and events.
More often than procedural memory, declarative memory requires some conscious mental effort….like remembering a Dr.’s appointment

25. Declarative Memory Declarative memory has two divisions:
Episodic Memory: This is the portion of memory that stores personal events or “episodes.”
This is the storage of things like time and place.
Semantic Memory: This portion of memory stores general knowledge, facts and language meaning.
This is specifically where all the information you “know” is stored.

26. Studies: implicit vs. explicit
People with amnesia who read a story once, will read it faster a second time, showing implicit (procedural because have done it before) memory.
There is no explicit memory though as they cannot recall having seen the text before
People with Alzheimer's who are repeatedly shown the word perfume will not recall having seen it.
If asked the first word that comes to mind in response to the letters per, they say perfume readily displaying learning.

27. Flashbulb memory
Of all our forms of memory, a few are exceptionally clear and vivid. We call these flashbulb memories.
These tend to be memories of highly emotional events. Typically people remember exactly where they were when the event happened, what they were doing and the emotions they felt.
JFK’s Assassination
Ex. 9/11

28. Parts of the brain used in memory
Two parts of the brain psychologists know for sure are involved in memory are the hippocampus and the amygdala.
In a process called consolidation, information in the working memory is gradually changed over to long term memories.
The amygdala seems to play a role in strengthening memories that have strong emotional connections.

29. Two types of forgetting
Retrograde Amnesia: The inability to remember information previously stored in memory.
Anterograde Amnesia: The inability to form memories from new material.
A sharp blow to the head, or electric shock can prevent memory traces from consolidating, making it hard to recall that information.

30. Types of Amnesia and forgetting
Retrograde amnesia is a form of amnesia where someone will be unable to recall events that occurred before the development of amnesia.
Anterograde amnesia is a loss of the ability to create memories after the event that caused the amnesia occurs

31. Retrieval clues
Retrieval clues are the search terms we use to activate memory—think of a Google search. The more specific you are, the better the results will be.
Some memories are easily remembered, while others are much harder to bring up. For example, if you draw a blank on a test, it may be a result of the wording on the test not being the same as the wording you used while studying.

32. RECALL AND RECOGNITION
Memories can be cued in two ways:
Recall: a retrieval method in which one must reproduce previously presented material.
Ex. Essay test; police sketch of a suspect
Recognition: a retrieval method in which one must identify information that is provided, which has previously been presented.
Ex. Multiple choice test; police line-up

33. Other factors affecting retrieval
Encoding specificity principal: the more closely the retrieval clues match way the information was encoded, the better the information will be remembered.
Think Google search
Mood-congruent memory: a theory which says we tend to selectively remember memories that match (are congruent with) our current mood.

34. Memory Construction
We often construct our memories as we encode them, and we may also alter our memories as we withdraw them
By filtering information and filling in missing pieces, our schemas (understanding of specific settings) direct our memory construction

35. Misinformation
As memory fades with time following an event, the injection of misinformation becomes easier.
Misinformation effect: incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event.
Imagination inflation occurs because visualizing something and actually perceiving it activate similar brain areas.

36. Misinformation effect
Depiction of actual accident
Leading question:
“About how fast were the cars
going when they smashed into
each other?”
Memory
construction
Eyewitnesses reconstruct memories when questioned

37. Repressed Memories
During the 1990s, the idea of repressing painful memories became a big topic.
While some psychoanalysts still support the idea of repressed memories, most psychologists agree that events that are traumatic are typically etched on the mind as vivid, persistent, haunting memories.

38. 1) transience
Transience: the impermanence of long-term memories-based on the idea that memories gradually fade in strength over time-also known as “decay theory.”

39. 2) Absent-mindedness
Absent-mindedness: forgetting caused by lapses in attention.
Ex. Forgetting where you parked; losing your keys

40. 3) blocking
Blocking: forgetting when a memory cannot be retrieved because of interference.
Proactive Interference: When an old memory disrupts the learning and remembering of a new memory.
Ex. Trying to put the dishes away at a new house
Retroactive Memory: When a new memory blocks the retrieval of an old memory.
Ex. Driving an automatic after driving a manual

41. Serial Position effect
The serial position effect is a form of interference related to the sequence in which material is presented.
Generally items in the middle are remembered less.
Primacy: relative ease of remembering the first information in a series.
Recency: Strong memories of the most recent information in a series
Info in the middle is exposed to both retroactively and proactively.

42. 4) misattribution
Misattribution: Memory faults that occur when memories are retrieved, but are associated with the wrong time, place or person.
Ex. Psychologist Donald Thompson accused of rape. Alibi was airtight as he was giving a TV interview the victim had been watching just prior to the assault.

43. 5) suggestibility
Suggestibility: The process of memory distortion as the result of deliberate or inadvertent suggestion.
Eyewitness accounts are one a large part of our legal system. Unfortunately they can be incredibly faulty.
With the misinformation effect, memories can be embellished or even created by cues and suggestions.

44. 6) bias
Bias: The influence of personal beliefs, attitudes and experiences on memory.
Expectancy Bias: A memory tendency to distort recalled events to fit one’s expectations.
Self-consistency Bias: A commonly held idea that we are more consistent in our attitudes and beliefs, over time, than we actually are.

45. 7) persistence
Persistence: A memory problem where unwanted memories cannot be put out of our mind.
Depressed people cannot stop thinking about how bad their life is and how unhappy they are. It can create a self-fulfilling problem.
Psychologists think that emotions strengthen the physical changes in the synapses that hold our memories, thus highly emotional memories can be harder to put out of mind.

46. Forgetting isn’t all bad
According to Schacter, the “seven sins” are actually a normal part of human memory, and are the results of adaptive features in our memories.
According to Schacter, each of the “sins” is for a reason:
Transience-to prevent memory overload
Blocking-to focus on task at hand
Absent-mindedness-ability to shift attention
Misattribution/bias/suggestibility-to focus on meaning and not detail
Persistence-to remember especially emotional memories

47. The Matchstick Problem
How would you arrange six matches to form four equilateral triangles?

48. The Candle-Mounting Problem
Using these materials, how would you mount the candle on a bulletin board?

49. Problems with Heuristics
One problem with heuristic are mental sets.
When faced with problems, we have a tendency to approach it in a familiar way.
Especially a way that has been successful in the past but may or may not be helpful in solving a new problem
Mental set: the tendency to respond to a new problem in the manner used for previous problems.

50. Problems With Heuristics
Another problem with relying on heuristics is called functional fixedness, a sort of mental set issue.
Functional Fixedness: The inability to perceive a new use for an object associated with a different purpose.

51. The Matchstick Problem
Solution to the matchstick problem

52. The Candle-Mounting Problem
Solving this problem requires recognizing that a box need not always serve as a container

53. Judging and Decision making
Along with mental sets, bias can make heuristics a faulty decision making tool.
Confirmation bias
Hindsight bias: Tendency to second guess a decision after the event has happened.
Representative bias: Judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to match particular prototype
Availability bias: Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory
if instances come readily to mind we presume such events are common

54. It’s in there somewhere!
The fact that retrieval cues can provoke powerful recollections has led some researchers to speculate that perhaps all memories are permanent.
That is, perhaps nearly all experiences are recorded in memory for a lifetime, and all forgetting is due not to the actual loss of memories but to our inability to retrieve them.

55. Stage 3: LTM The “tip of the tongue” phenomenon
when you know you know something but cannot immediately recall it
the phenomenon suggests a retrieval problem in LTM
the information is there but you cannot access it as you have lost the address to it
improve LTM by being sure to encode addressing information in stored material

56. Synaptic Changes and storage
One physical change in the brain during memory storage is in the synapses.
Memories begin as impulses whizzing through the brain circuits, leaving a semi-permanent trace.
The more a memory is utilized, the more potential strength that neuron has, called long-term potential.
Neural basis for learning and remembering associations

57. Strengthening Ltp
Research suggests that the best way to remember things is to study them and then sleep!
Once LTP has occurred, even passing an electrical current through the brain will not erase well stored memories.
More recent memories will be wiped out
People who have a concussion and cannot remember what happened just before or after the injury have not had a chance to “consolidate” their memories to the long-term

58. Does cramming for a test work?
Cramming for a test does NOT help us remember as well as studying for a test the same amount of time but in shorter sessions on different occasions.
Distributed practice of memory is better than massed practice (cramming).

59. Enhancing memory?
Psych 101 Chapter 7

60. Enhancing memory? Do “smart drugs” really work?
drugs designed to enhance memory are highly controversial and should be viewed with caution
memory enhancers must work at the level of the synapses to be effective, e.g., neural transmitters
drug-assisted memories can only usually be recalled successfully if subject is in the drugged state

61. Enhancing memory?
Stimulants and memory: should I use stimulants to keep me hyped-up for studying for exams?
memory is state- dependent
you must be in the same state to most effectively recall something that you were in when you learned it
if you are coffee-buzzed learning, then you should be coffee-buzzed testing

62. Application of psychology
How valid is eyewitness testimony and their memory?
research by Loftus reveals that eye-witness memories can be faulty
the influence of perception on recall of events is substantial
eye-witnesses may not be lying but may be remembering false data
implications for lawyers, clients, and witnesses

63. Psych 101 Chapter 7

64. What did you see? What was occurring? What color was the floor?
Was there a spoon in the picture?
What color was the handle on the grinder?
How many eyes were in the picture?
Was there any food in the picture?
How was your memory?

65. End here

66. Definition of Social Psychology
Studies individuals as they interact with others
Aristotle: Man is by nature a social animal
Psychologists study
Attractions
Needs
Influences
Examine within social context of situations

67. Groups and Social Influence
Social Psychology
Groups and Social Influence
Lynch mobs
Racial prejudice: lynching of African Americans
Deindividuation – anonymous, inidentifiable feeling of group member
Weakens restraints; are more aggressive
Uninvolved bystanders
Murder of Kitty Genovese in New York
The larger the group, the less likely one will help
Diffusion of responsibility

68. Working and Solving Problems in Groups
Social Psychology
Working and Solving Problems in Groups
Social facilitation: being in group improves individual performance
Social loafing: individuals exert less effort in group than if by themselves (slack off)
Nature of task affects behavior
Optimal levels of arousal
Easy/skilled tasks performed more quickly
Difficult/unfamiliar tasks performed more slowly

69. Group Problem Solving Groupthink –
Social Psychology
Group Problem Solving
Groupthink –
Faulty decision-making process in groups
President Kennedy’s Bay of Pigs invasion
NASA’s 1986 Challenger shuttle disaster
Causes
Process of polarization (extreme views)
Cohesiveness of members of the group (likelihood highest in tightly knit groups)
Size of the group
Interactive dialogue vs. serial monologue

70. Conformity, Social Roles, and Obedience
Social Psychology
Conformity, Social Roles, and Obedience
Conformity –
Asch experiments
Peer and cultural expectations
Conform for two reasons
Gain rewards, avoid punishment
Gain social approval, avoid disapproval

71. X Y Z A
Yielding to group pressure even when no direct request to comply has been made.

72. Conformity Autokinetic effect (Sherif)
Social Psychology
Conformity
Autokinetic effect (Sherif)
In ambiguous situation – one looks to others for information that influences judgment
Likelihood of conformity causes
Size of group (increases with size)
Unanimous groups (reduced by dissent)
Culture and conformity
Gender and conformity (sterotypes changing, no longer true)

73. Decision Model of Helping
Yes
Know how to help?
Decide to help implement intervention?
Help victim
Interpret as an emergency?
Assume responsibility for helping?
Notice an event?
Do not help 2 No 3 4 5 1

74. Social Roles and Social Norms
Social Psychology
Social Roles and Social Norms
Every culture has
Social roles – expectations of behavior
Social norms – standards for behavior in given situations
Zimbardo’s prison study –
Power of social roles influencing behaviors
Behavior changes to fit perceptions of role
Iraq’s Abu Ghraib prison scandal
Social roles coupled with intense emotions

75. Obedience Direct influence by authority figures
Social Psychology
Obedience
Direct influence by authority figures
Unthinkable atrocities of WW II
Milgram’s shock experiments
Teacher less likely to give high voltage shock when learner in same room
Positive sides of groups
Accomplish things that individuals cannot
Can be therapeutic: emotional support, lower stress

76. Attitudes and Persuasion
Social Psychology
Attitudes and Persuasion
Attitudes – beliefs that predispose one to act or feel in certain ways
Learned directly from experience and others
Persuasion and attitude change
Aristotle: persuasive arguments in oral debates
Ads in media use persuasion to induce behavior
Persuasion – process of changing another’s attitudes by arguments and other related means

77. Attitudes and Persuasion
Social Psychology
Attitudes and Persuasion
Characteristics of Speaker
Credibility – is speaker credible source of information about specific argument being presented
Attractiveness – more effective to be attractive, popular, famous, or likeable
Intent – what the rationale is behind it

78. Attitudes and Persuasion
Social Psychology
Attitudes and Persuasion
Characteristics of the message
Fear appeals (emotional arousal)
Two-sided arguments (most effective)
Message framing (how argument is presented)
Characteristics of listeners
Intelligence
Need for social approval
Self-esteem
Audience size
Social support

79. Attitudes and Persuasion
Social Psychology
Attitudes and Persuasion
Techniques of persuasion
Foot-in-the-door (small request made, then progressively larger ones)
Low-ball
Cognitive dissonance theory
Explains discomfort of inconsistencies in attitudes and behaviors
Humans usually reduce dissonance the easiest way possible (ie: smoking and cancer)

80. Cognitive Dissonance or Smoking cigarettes is unhealthy
The research on smoking is not conclusive
I don’t smoke cigarettes anymore
I smoke cigarettes
Unpleasanttension
state

81. Prejudice and Stereotypes
Social Psychology
Prejudice and Stereotypes
Prejudice – harmful attitude based on inaccurate generalizations (ie: group, race)
Stereotypes: inaccurate generalizations that are harmful for three reasons
Reduce one’s ability to treat another as individual
Narrow expectations for behavior
Lead to faulty attributions
Attitudes lead to behaviors!!

82. Prejudice and Stereotypes
Social Psychology
Prejudice and Stereotypes
Automatic prejudice – everyone is prejudiced about something
Causes of stereotypes and prejudice
Realistic conflict (frustration from competing with another group for scarce resources)
Us versus them – human tendency of in-group and out-group
Social learning (it is taught and learned)

83. Prejudice and Stereotypes
Social Psychology
Prejudice and Stereotypes
Combating prejudice
Recognize prejudice
Control automatic prejudice
Increase contact among prejudiced groups
Two groups must be almost equal in status
View each other as typical of their respective group; not the exception
Engage in cooperative, not competitive tasks
Contact must be informal

84. Interpersonal Attraction
Social Psychology
Interpersonal Attraction
Attribution - Making judgments about what causes people to behave the way they do
Fundamental attribution error
Underestimating negative impact of situations on others
Situational attribution –
Blaming external cause for behavior
Dispositional attribution
Blaming internal motive/trait for behavior

85. Interpersonal Attraction
Social Psychology
Interpersonal Attraction
Negative Information
The bad outweighs the good – cognitive algebra
Chemistry of love and social bonding
Appears people respond to sex hormones
Androstadien (in human sweat)
Oxytocin (in blood and brain)

86. Interpersonal Attraction
Social Psychology
Interpersonal Attraction
Characteristics of the other person
Drawn to those with similar interests
Opposites attract – complements each other (gives balance to relationship, avoids having competition)
Physical attractiveness
attribute better qualities to beautiful people
Most important factor in early stage meeting
Self-fulfilling prophecy and perceptions

87. Interpersonal Attraction
Social Psychology
Interpersonal Attraction
Characteristics of perceiver
Personality traits influence person perception
Neuroticist persons tend not to marry
Emotions and person perception
Positive emotions are more attractive
Gender differences
Men interested in falling in love
Majority of people think romantic love is necessary for marriage

88. Extraneous Factors Primacy effects
Social Psychology
Extraneous Factors
Primacy effects
First impressions are very important; more weight given than to later information
Conditions lessen impact primacy effects
Prolonged exposure
Passage of time
Knowledge of primacy effects
Cause of attraction
Proximity
Mutual liking

89. Relationships Maintaining relationships Equity in relationships
Social Psychology
Relationships
Maintaining relationships
Balancing reality with expectations
Shift from passionate love to companionate love signals unfulfilled expectations
Normal for personal changes to occur over time
Equity in relationships
Equity theory