1. Biochemistry
Honor’s Biology

3. Carbon-based Molecules
Although a cell is mostly water, the rest of the cell consists mostly of carbon-based molecules
Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds that are necessary for life

4. Uses of Organic Compounds
Americans consume an average of 140 pounds of sugar per person per year
Cellulose, found in plant cell walls, is the most abundant organic compound on Earth

5. Uses of Organic Molecules
A typical cell in your body has about 2 meters of DNA
A typical cow produces over 200 pounds of methane gas each year

6. Carbon is a Versatile Atom
It has four electrons in an outer shell that holds eight
Carbon can share its electrons with other atoms to form up to four covalent bonds

7. Carbon can use its bonds to::
Attach to other carbons
Form an endless diversity of carbon skeletons

8. Giant Molecules - Polymers
Large molecules are called polymers
Polymers are built from smaller molecules called monomers
Biologists call them macromolecules

9. Examples of Polymers
Proteins
Lipids
Carbohydrates
Nucleic Acids

10. Most Macromolecules are Polymers
Polymers are made by stringing together many smaller molecules called monomers
Nucleic Acid Monomer

11. This process joins two sugar monomers to make a double sugar
Linking Monomers
Cells link monomers by a process called dehydration synthesis (removing a molecule of water)
Remove H
H2O Forms
Remove OH
This process joins two sugar monomers to make a double sugar

12. Answer: Dehydration Synthesis
Also called “condensation reaction”
Forms polymers by combining monomers by “removing water”. HO H
H2O HO H

13. Breaking Down Polymers
Cells break down macromolecules by a process called hydrolysis (adding a molecule of water)
Water added to split a double sugar

14. Answer: Hydrolysis
Separates monomers by “adding water” HO H
H2O HO H

15. Macromolecules in Organisms
There are four categories of large molecules in cells:
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic Acids

16. 4 Categories of Macromolecule
Carbohydrates: Made up of monosaccharides
Lipids: Made up of glycerol and fatty acid molecules
Proteins: Made up of Amino acids
Nucleic acids: Made up of nucleotides

17. Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are made up of simple sugars (monosaccharides):
Small sugar molecules in soft drinks
Long starch molecules in pasta and potatoes
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18. FUNCTION of Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates provide your cells with energy! They are your primary source of energy!

19. Carbohydrates Examples: A. monosaccharide B. disaccharide
C. polysaccharide

20. Carbohydrates Monosaccharide: one sugar unit
Examples: Glucose (C6H12O6)
Fructose
Galactose
glucose

21. Monosaccharides: Called simple sugars
Include glucose, fructose, & galactose
Have the same chemical, but different structural formulas
C6H12O6

22. -OSE ending means SUGAR
Monosaccharides
Glucose is found in sports drinks
Fructose is found in fruits
Honey contains both glucose & fructose
Galactose is called “milk sugar”
-OSE ending means SUGAR

23. Isomers
Glucose & fructose are isomers because they’re structures are different, but their chemical formulas are the same

24. In aqueous (watery) solutions, monosaccharides form ring structures

25. Cellular Fuel
Monosaccharides are the main fuel that cells use for cellular work
ATP

26. Carbohydrates Disaccharide: two sugar unit Examples:
Sucrose (glucose+fructose)
Lactose (glucose+galactose)
Maltose (glucose+glucose)
glucose

27. Disaccharides A disaccharide is a double sugar
They’re made by joining two monosaccharides
Involves removing a water molecule (dehydration synthesis)

28. Common disaccharides include:
Sucrose (table sugar)
Lactose (Milk Sugar)
Maltose (Grain sugar)

29. Disaccharides Maltose is composed of 2 glucose molecules
Sucrose is composed of glucose + fructose
Maltose is composed of 2 glucose molecules
Lactose is made of galactose + glucose
GLUCOSE

30. Carbohydrates Polysaccharide: many sugar units
Examples: starch (bread, potatoes)
glycogen (stored in liver)
cellulose (lettuce, corn)
glucose
cellulose

31. Polysaccharides Complex carbohydrates
Composed of many sugar monomers linked together
Polymers of monosaccharide chains

32. Examples of Polysaccharides
Glucose Monomer
Starch
Glycogen
Cellulose

33. Starch Starch is an example of a polysaccharide in plants
Plant cells store starch for energy
Potatoes and grains are major sources of starch in the human diet

34. Glycogen Glycogen is an example of a polysaccharide in animals
Animals store excess sugar in the form of glycogen
Glycogen is similar in structure to starch because BOTH are made of glucose monomers

35. Cellulose Cellulose is the most abundant organic compound on Earth
It forms cable-like fibrils in the tough walls that enclose plants
It is a major component of wood
It is also known as dietary fiber

36. Cellulose
SUGARS

37. Dietary Cellulose Most animals cannot derive nutrition from fiber
They have bacteria in their digestive tracts that can break down cellulose

38. Sugars in Water
Simple sugars and double sugars dissolve readily in water
WATER MOLECULE
They are hydrophilic, or “water-loving”
-OH groups make them water soluble
SUGAR MOLECULE

39. Lipids - fats Lipids are hydrophobic –”water fearing”
Do NOT mix with water
Examples include
fats, waxes, oils and steroids
FAT MOLECULE

40. Lipids General term for compounds which are not soluble in water.
Lipids are soluble in hydrophobic solvents.
Remember: “stores the most energy”
Examples: 1. Fats
2. Phospholipids
3. Oils
4. Waxes
5. Steroid hormones
6. Triglycerides

41. Lipids Five functions of lipids: 1. Long term energy storage
2. Protection against heat loss (insulation)
3. Protection against physical shock
4. Chemical messengers (hormones)
5. Major component of membranes (phospholipids)

42. Lipids Triglycerides: composed of 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids. = =H
H-C----O
glycerol O
C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 = O
C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 =
fatty acids O
C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH
=CH-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 =

43. Triglyceride
Fatty Acid Chains
Glycerol

44. Fatty Acids
There are two kinds of fatty acids you may see these on food labels:
1. Saturated fatty acids: no double bonds (bad)
2. Unsaturated fatty acids: double bonds (good) O
C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 =
saturated O
C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH
=CH-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 =
unsaturated

45. Types of Fatty Acids
Saturated fatty acids have the maximum number of hydrogens bonded to the carbons (all single bonds between carbons)
Unsaturated fatty acids have less than the maximum number of hydrogens bonded to the carbons (a double bond between carbons)

46. Types of Fatty Acids Single Bonds in Carbon chain
Double bond in carbon chain

47. Fats in Organisms
Most animal fats have a high proportion of saturated fatty acids & exist as solids at room temperature (butter, margarine, shortening)

48. Fats in Organisms
Most plant oils tend to be low in saturated fatty acids & exist as liquids at room temperature (oils)

49. Fats
Dietary fat consists largely of the molecule triglyceride composed of glycerol and three fatty acid chains
Fatty Acid Chain
Glycerol
Condensation links the fatty acids to Glycerol

50. Lipids & Cell Membranes
Cell membranes are made of lipids called phospholipids
Phospholipids have a head that is polar & attract water (hydrophilic)
Phospholipids also have 2 tails that are nonpolar and do not attract water (hydrophobic)

51. Steroids
The carbon skeleton of steroids is bent to form 4 fused rings
Cholesterol
Cholesterol is the “base steroid” from which your body produces other steroids
Estrogen
Testosterone
Estrogen & testosterone are also steroids