1. Chapter 9 Classical Conditioning
Introduction to Psychology
Virginia Union University

2. Learning & Behavior Learning Behavior
A relatively enduring or permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from previous experience with certain stimuli and responses
Behavior
Any observable responses

3. Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov)
Kind of learning where a neutral stimulus acquires the ability to produce a response that was originally produced by a different stimulus
Automatic & unconscious response/reflex
Pavlov & his salivating dogs
Selecting Stimulus & Response
Before conditioning: NS (bell) = NR (no salivation)
Establishing Classical Conditioning
During conditioning: NS (bell) + UCS (food) = UCR (salivating dog)
Testing for Conditioning
After conditioning: CS (bell) = CR (salivating dog)
Dog salivation also called a conditioned reflex

4. Classical Conditioning Examples
Aftershave & Anxiety
Before conditioning: NS (Aftershave) = NR (No Anxiety)
During conditioning: NS (Aftershave) + UCS (Dental Procedure) = UCR (Anxiety)
After conditioning: CS (Aftershave) = CR (Anxiety)
Anxiety also called a conditioned reflex
Needles & Fear
Before conditioning: NS (Needle) = NR (No Fear)
During conditioning: NS (Needle) + UCS (Injection) = UCR (Fear)
After conditioning: CS (Needle) = CR (Fear)
Fear also called a conditioned reflex

5. Explaining Classical Conditioning
Stimulus Substitution
A neutral bond or association forms in the brain between the neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus. After repeated trials, the neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus and acts like a substitute for the unconditioned stimulus. Thereafter, the conditioned stimulus elicits a conditioned response that is similar to that of the unconditioned stimulus.
Contiguity Theory
Two stimuli are paired close together in time (are contiguous). As a result of this contiguous pairing, the neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus, which elicits the conditioned response.
Cognitive Perspective
An organism learns a predictable relationship between two stimuli such that the occurrence of one stimulus predicts the occurrence of another. Classical conditioning occurs because the organism learns what to expect.

6. Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning (BF Skinner) 4 types
Kind of learning in which the consequences that follow some behavior increases or decreases the likelihood of that behavior’s occurrence in the future
Reinforcement & punishment
Thorndike’s Law of Effect: if some random actions are followed by a pleasurable consequence or reward, such actions are strengthened and will likely occur in the future (ex: Cat’s goal-directed behavior)
4 types
Positive Reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement
Punishment
Extinction

7. Operant Conditioning: Positive Reinforcement
A particular behavior is strengthened by the consequence of experiencing a positive condition
Positive Reinforcement Examples
A hungry rat presses a bar in its cage and receives food. The food is a positive condition for the hungry rat. The rat presses the bar again and again receives food. The rat’s behavior of pressing the bar is strengthened by the consequence of receiving food.
A student studies for a course and receives a good grade. The good grade is a positive condition for the student. The student continues to study and again receives good grades. The student’s behavior of studying is strengthened by the consequence of receiving good grades.

8. Operant Conditioning: Negative Reinforcement
A particular behavior is strengthened by the consequence of stopping or avoiding a negative condition
Negative Reinforcement Examples
A rat is placed in a cage and immediately receives a mild electrical shock on its feet. The shock is a negative condition for the rat. The rat presses a bar and the shock stops. The rat receives another shock, presses the bar again, and again the shock stops. The rat’s behavior of pressing the bar is strengthened by the consequence of stopping the shock.
A driver parks their car on the street and receives a parking ticket in the amount of $20. The parking ticket is a negative condition for the driver. The driver pays $1 to the parking meter and stops receiving parking tickets. The driver receives another parking ticket, pays the parking meter, and the tickets again stop. The driver’s behavior of paying the parking meter is strengthened by the consequence of preventing receiving parking tickets.

9. Operant Conditioning: Punishment
A particular behavior weakened by the consequence of experiencing a negative condition
Punishment Examples
A rat presses a bar in its cage and receives a mild electrical shock on its feet. The shock is a negative condition for the rat. The rat presses the bar again and again receives a shock. The rat’s behavior of pressing the bar is weakened by the consequence of receiving a shock.
A driver speeds through a known speed trap and receives a speeding ticket. The speeding ticket is a negative condition for the driver. The driver speeds through the speed trap again and receives another speeding ticket. The driver’s behavior of speeding through the speed trap is weakened by the consequence of receiving a speeding ticket.

10. Operant Conditioning: Extinction
A particular behavior is weakened by the consequence of not experiencing a positive condition or stopping a negative condition
Extinction Examples
A rat presses a bar in its cage and nothing happens. Neither a positive or a negative condition exists for the rat. The rat presses the bar again and again nothing happens. The rat’s behavior of pressing the bar is weakened by the consequence of not experiencing anything positive or stopping anything negative.
A guy uses corny pick-up lines on women and they don’t respond “Girl, you must be from Tennessee, cause you’re the only ten I see….” The guys uses a similar line again and again nothing happens. The guy’s behavior of using corny pick-up lines on women is weakened by the consequence of not receiving a response from women.

11. Different kinds of Learning
Cognitive Learning (Albert Bandura)
A kind of learning that involves mental processes, such as attention and memory; may be learned through observation or imitation; and may not involve any external rewards or require the person to perform any observable behaviors
Learning through observation & imitation
Bandura & Bobo doll study
Children learned to behave aggressively after watching and imitating the aggressive behaviors of adults

12. Other Conditioning Concepts
Generalization
Tendency for a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response. Usually, the more similar the new stimulus to the original conditioned stimulus, the larger will be the conditioned response.
Example: Response to aftershave generalized to shampoo
Discrimination
Occurs during classical conditioning when an organism learns to make a particular response to some stimuli and not to others
Example: Response to aftershave and not to nail polish
Extinction (previously mentioned)
Spontaneous Recovery
The tendency for the conditioned response to reappear after being extinguished even though there have been no further conditioning trials
Example: Conditioned anxiety to the smell of aftershave spontaneously returns after a run-in with the dentist

13. Adaptive Value & Uses Adaptive Value Examples
The usefulness of certain abilities or traits that have evolved in animals and humans and tend to increase their chances of survival, such as finding food, acquiring mates, and avoiding pain and injury
Examples
Taste-Aversion Learning
Associating a particular sensory cue (smell, taste, sound or sight) with getting sick and thereafter avoiding that particular sensory cue in the future
Is the smell of rotten or spoiled food appealing?
Example: getting drunk & throwing up
Preparedness
Phenomenon that animals and humans are biologically prepared to associate some combinations of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli more easily than others
Example: rats more sensitive to taste/smell taste aversion compared to light cues

14. Conditioning Emotional Responses
Conditioned Emotional Response
Feeling some positive or negative emotion, such as happiness, fear, or anxiety, when experiencing a stimulus that initially accompanies a pleasant or painful event
Examples:
John Watson, Little Albert & the rat
Laugh tracks vs. scary movie instrumentals

15. Cultural Diversity & Classical Conditioning
Dental care & cultural differences in dental fear
More fear in countries where dental care is not free/universal and more likely to occur when absolutely necessary and potentially where pain is involved (i.e. US & Japan) compared to countries where dental care is free/universal & routine (i.e. Scandinavian countries)
Racial differences & perceptions of police officers
Races that are more likely to be racially profiled/have negative experiences with police officials more likely to have negative/fearful perceptions of the police compared to races that are less likely to be racially profiled

16. Systematic Desensitization
Procedure based on classical conditioning in which a person imagines or visualizes fearful or anxiety-evoking stimuli and then immediately uses deep relaxation to overcome the anxiety . Systematic desensitization is a form of counterconditioining because it replaces, or counters, fear and anxiety with relaxation.
Systematic Desensitization in Action
Fear of Spiders
Develop relaxation techniques
Practice relaxation techniques while thinking about spiders until the thought no longer produces feelings of fear
Practice relaxation techniques while viewing a picture of spiders until the pictures no longer produce feelings of fear
Practice relaxation techniques while watching a movie about spiders until the visual no longer produces feelings of fear
Practice relaxation techniques while in the room with a caged spider until the presence of a spider no longer produces feelings of fear
Etc.