1. Benefits and Costs of Proactive Control Flexible Task-Switchers are More Susceptible to Distraction Katharine A. Blackwell1 & Yuko Munakata2 1Hartwick College 2University of Colorado Boulder
Experiment 1: Proactive Benefits
Delayed-match-to-sample task
See picture; study until can remember
After 1s, 4s, or 16s delay with blank screen, select picture from 3 options
Reaction time to select correct picture measured (accuracy near ceiling)
Behavior during delay assessed for potential memory strategies
3D card sort task
Match first by shape, then color, then size
Multiple rules presented only once; proactive control likely needed because rules difficult to retrieve.
Children categorically switch (near perfect on both post-switch blocks) or perseverate (continue sorting by shape on both postswitch blocks) (Deák, 2003 )
Experiment 1: Proactive Benefits
Switchers select picture faster (F(1,48) = 4.1, p < .05, 2 = .08), particularly after longest delay (F(2,96) = 4.7, p = .01, 2 = .09; when maintenance is most needed.
Discussion
Cognitive Control Undergoes Key Transitions in Development
3.5-year-olds are reactive, encoding task- relevant information and retrieving it later;
8-year-olds are proactive, actively maintaining information from the time it is provided in anticipation of needing it later (Chatham, Frank, & Munakata, 2009).
Switchers respond faster on a working memory task, demonstrating advantages of proactive control.
Although switchers’ advantage could be consistent with many theories, few would predict the cost of distraction: switchers suffer more and are slower than perseverators when proactive strategies are prevented.
Switchers may be less effective at reactive processes as a result of transitioning to proactive control.
Or, switchers may be trying to use proactive strategies even when they are not effective.
Caution should be taken in attempting to improve children’s cognitive control; speeding transitions to proactive control may have costs.
Developing Control May Confer Both Benefits and Costs
Cognitive control supports task-switching, but may interfere with learning and creativity by directing attention in an overly task-focused manner (Thompson-Schill, Ramscar, & Chrysikou, 2009).
Proactive control supports preparedness, but is also more resource-demanding, requiring effortful maintenance in working memory (Braver et al., 2007)
Switchers showed trend to use more visible proactive strategies to remember shapes
16 children (30%) traced shapes or formed them with hands during the delay
More switchers (50%) than perseverators (18%) used strategies (χ2(1,39) = 3.3, p < .07)
References
Braver, T.S., Gray, J.R., Burgess, G.C. (2007). Explaining the many varieties of working memory variation: Dual mechanisms of cognitive control. In Conway, A., Jarrold, C., Kane, M., Miyake, A., Towse, J. (Eds.) Variation in Working Memory. (pp ). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Deák, G. O. (2003). The development of cognitive flexibility and language abilities. In R. Kail (Ed.). Advances in child development and behavior (Vol. 31, pp. 271–327). San Diego: Academic Press.
Chatham, C. H., Frank, M. J., & Munakata, Y. (2009). Pupillometric and behavioral markers of a developmental shift in the temporal dynamics of cognitive control. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106,
Thomspon-Schill, S. L., Ramscar, M., & Chrysikou, E. G. (2009). Cognition without control: When a little frontal lobe goes a long way. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18,
Assess Benefits and Costs
Experiment 2: Proactive Costs
Switchers were slower than perseverators when distracted F(1,38) = 4.0, p = .05, 2 = .10
Switchers were hurt more by distraction (compared to undistracted DMS) than perseverators F(1,38) = 4.4, p < .05, 2 = .10
Experiment 1: Benefits of Proactive Control.
Do children who use proactive strategies experience benefits in preparedness?
Proactive strategy assessed by successful switching on a 3D card sort, and confirmed via visible proactive strategies on a memory task.
Benefits assessed by reaction time on a delayed-match-to-sample (DMS) task.
Experiment 2: Proactive Costs
Distracted delayed-match-to-sample task
Children instructed to tap on table and count backwards from 10 or 20 during the delay.
Pictures also more difficult to name, may prevent verbal rehearsal.
Middle delay increased to 8s to increase working memory demands.
Original delayed-match-to-sample task
3D card sort task
Experiment 2: Costs of Proactive Control.
Do children who use proactive strategies suffer more from a concurrent distractor task?
Secondary task (counting backwards and tapping table) added during DMS delay.
Proactive strategy assessed by 3D card sort and costs assessed via RT in DMS, as in Expt. 1
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by NIH (RO1 HD37163 and P50-MH079485)
Thanks to: Nicholas Cepeda and Sara McQuiston for the 3D card sort; Teesa Dutta and Adam Blefarri for their coding help.
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