1. Chapter 7
Motivation Concepts

2. Learning Objectives Describe the three elements of motivation.
Identify early theories of motivation and evaluate their applicability today.
Apply the predictions of self-determination theory to intrinsic and extrinsic rewards.
Understand the implications of employee engagement for management.
Compare and contrast goal setting theory and management by objectives.
Contrast reinforcement theory and goal-setting theory.
Demonstrate how organizational justice is a refinement of equity theory.
Apply the key tenets of expectancy theory to motivating employees.
Compare contemporary theories of motivation.

3. Defining Motivation Motivation
The processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal – specifically, an organizational goal

4. Early Theories of Motivation
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
General Examples
Organizational Examples
Achievement
Self Actualization Needs
Challenging Job
Status
Esteem Needs
Job Title
Friendship
Social / Belongingness Needs
Friends in Work
Stability
Security / Safety Needs
Pension Plan
Sustenance
Physiological Needs
Base Salary
Individuals cannot move to the next higher level until all needs at the current (lower) level are satisfied
Must move in hierarchical order

5. Early Theories of Motivation
McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
Theory Y (basically positive)
Theory X (basically negative)
Workers are self-directed
Enjoy work
Accept responsibility
Workers have little ambition
Dislike work
Avoid responsibility
Managers used a set of assumptions based on their view
The assumptions molded their behavior toward employees
No empirical evidence to support this theory

6. Early Theories of Motivation
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
The Traditional View
Satisfaction
Dissatisfaction
The Herzberg’s View
Satisfaction
Dissatisfaction
The Motivation Factors
Satisfaction
No Satisfaction
The Hygiene Factors
No Dissatisfaction
Dissatisfaction
= Achievement = Recognition = The Work it self = Responsibility = Advancement and Growth
= Supervision = Working Conditions = Interpersonal Relationships = Pay and Job Security = Company Policies
Intrinsic to the Work
Extrinsic to the Work
Key Point: Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not opposites but separate constructs

7. Early Theories of Motivation
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Herzberg is limited by his procedure - Participants had self-serving bias
Reliability of raters questioned - Bias or errors of observation
No overall measure of satisfaction was used
Herzberg assumed, but didn’t research, a strong relationship between satisfaction and productivity

8. Early Theories of Motivation
McClelland’s Three Needs Theory
Need for Achievement
The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed
Prefer to undertake activities with a 50/50 chance of success – avoiding very low or high risk situations
Be motivated in jobs that offer high degree of personal responsibility, feedback, and moderate risk
Don’t necessarily make good managers – too personal a focus
Most good general managers do not have a high need for achievement
Need high level of need for power and low need for affiliation for managerial success
Good research support but it is not a very practical theory
Need for Power
The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise
Need for Affiliation
The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships
People have varying levels of each of the three needs which is hard to measure

9. Contemporary Theories of Motivation
Self DeterminationTheory
A theory of motivation that is concerned with the beneficial effects of intrinsic motivation and the harmful effects of extrinsic motivation.
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Providing an extrinsic reward for behavior that had been previously only intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivation
Self-concordance
When the personal reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with personal interests and core values (intrinsic motivation), people are happier and more successful.
Feel having control
Want to do the work
Have to do the work

10. Contemporary Theories of Motivation
Job Engagement
The investment of an employee’s physical, cognitive, and emotional energies into job performance.
What are the Consequences of High Job Engagement?
Positive performance and citizenship behaviors

11. Contemporary Theories of Motivation
Goal Setting Theory
Specific and difficult goals, with self-generated feedback, lead to higher performance.
Why difficult goals?
Relationship between goals and performance depends on:
Feedback – Performance relationship - Goal commitment (the more public the better!) - Task characteristics (simple, well-learned) – National culture (best match is in North America)

12. Contemporary Theories of Motivation
Goal Setting Theory (Implementing Goal Setting)
Management by Objectives (MBO)
A program that encompasses specific goals, participatively set, for an explicit time period, with feedback on goal progress
MBO is a systematic way to utilize goal-setting
Goals must be: Tangible – Verifiable - Measurable
Corporate goals are broken down into smaller, more specific goals at each level of organization.
Four common ingredients to MBO programs: Goal Specificity - Participative decision making - Explicit time period - Performance feedback

13. Contemporary Theories of Motivation
Self-Efficacy Theory
Self Efficacy
An individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task
Greater confidence
Greater persistence in the face of difficulties
Better response to negative feedback (work harder)
That’s why self-efficacy complements goal-setting theory
Increasing self-efficacy:
Enactive mastery
Vicarious modeling
Verbal persuasion
Arousal

14. Contemporary Theories of Motivation
Reinforcement Theory
Reinforcement Theory
Behavior is a function of its consequences
Environment
Thought are ignored
Behavior is controlled by its consequences
Not a motivational theory but a means of analysis of behavior

15. Contemporary Theories of Motivation
Equity Theory
Equity Theory
Employees compare their ratios of outcomes-to-inputs of relevant others and then respond to eliminate any inequities
When ratios are equal: state of equity exists – no tension as the situation is considered fair
When ratios are unequal: tension exists due to unfairness
Equity
Under rewarded – Over rewarded
Outcomes (self)
Inputs (self)
Inputs (others)
Outcomes (others)
Compared With

16. Contemporary Theories of Motivation
Equity Theory
Referent Comparisons
Self-Inside
Self-Outside
Others-Inside
Others-Outside
Motivation to Equity
Maintain current situation
Motivation to Inequity
Change inputs
Change outcomes
Distort/change perceptions of self
Distort/change perceptions of others
Choose a different referent person
Leave the field

17. Contemporary Theories of Motivation
Equity Theory
Organizational Justice
An overall perception of what is fair in the workplace
Distributive Justice
Perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals
Procedural Justice
Perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards
Interactional Justice
The perceived degree to which an individual is treated with dignity, concern, and respect

18. Contemporary Theories of Motivation
Expectancy Theory
The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of the outcome to the individual
Individual
Effort
Individual Performance
Organizational
Rewards
Personal
Goals 1 2 3
Effort - Performance Relationship
Performance – Reward Relationship
Rewards- Personal Goals Relationship

19. Integrating Contemporary Theories of Motivation