1. Pragmatics

2. Pragmatics Definition The study of 'intended speaker meaning'
The study of 'invisible' meaning, the UNSAID: we recognize what is meant even when it is not actually said (or written).
In order to comprehend 'intended meaning', speakers/writers must be able to depend on a lot of shared assumptions and expectations.

3. Pragmatics Ex. 1 A: I have a fourteen year old son
B: Well that's all right
A: I also have a dog
B: Oh, I'm sorry
Ex. 2 A sign:
Heated
Attendant
Parking

5. Pragmatics
Context
LINGUISTIC CONTEXT > co-text: the set of words sorrounding a word within the same phrase or utterance ('bank', sorrounded by cash, money, check, refers to the financial institution)
PHYSICAL CONTEXT> the 'physical', social, and cultural situation where/when we encounter linguistic expressions (cf. the notice).

6. Pragmatics
Deixis
Deixis means 'pointing' via language, i.e. speakers and listeners can interpret some words only thanks to the physical context.
Deictic expressions
person deixis: I, you, him, it, them
time deixis: now, then, tomorrow, last week
place deixis: here, there, beyond
other deictics: that, this, those, these

7. Pragmatics Deixis (cont.)‏
Ex. You'll have to bring that back tomorrow, because they aren't here now.
All deictic espressions have to be interpreted in terms of what person, place or time the speaker/writer has in mind.

8. Pragmatics
Reference
As deictic expressions need a context to be interpreted, the context must be composed of referents,i.e. people, things, concepts.
Words themselves don't refer to anything. People refer. Reference is an act by which speaker/writer uses language to allow listeners/readers to identify people, things, concepts.
Behind 'him/that/here' there must be a person, an object, a place shared by both speaker and listener.

9. Pragmatics
Anaphora
The anaphoric relation connects the deictic expression to its referent.
Ex.: A : Where is my book?
B : It's on the table
Book = referent or ANTECEDENT
It = ANAPHORA

10. Pragmatics
Inference
It is an additional information used by the listener/reader to connect what is said to what must be meant.
Ex. I have just read Shakespeare
The listener/reader infers that the name stands for the book because s/he knows who Shakespeare is. (Common background)‏

11. Pragmatics Presupposition
It implies the fact that the speaker/writer always constructs her/his linguistic messages on the basisof the assumptions about their listeners/readers infer.
Ex. I have just read Shakespeare
There is an obvious presupposition that the listener/reader knows Shakespeare
Ex. Your brother is waiting outside for you
presupposition> you have a brother

12. Pragmatics Speech Acts Speech Event = CONTEXT
Actions performed through utterances:
Apology, complaint, invitation, promise, request/ order, statement. They depends on the communicative intention of the speaker and on the function they fullfil
Example
You are so beautiful!
I beg your pardon
Speech Event = CONTEXT

13. Pragmatics SPEECH ACTS Locutionary act
The act of producing meaningful linguistic expressionI
ex. I’ve just made some coffee
Illocutionary act
The act of producing meaningful linguistic expression with a purpose
ex. I’ve just made some coffee
>>>>>offer, the purpose is the illocutionary force
Perlocutionary act
The act of producing an utterance with the speaker’s intention to have some effect on the listener
ex. Would you like some coffee?
>>>>offer, but with a perlocutionary effect

14. Pragmatics SPEECH ACT CLASSIFICATION
DECLARATIVES
Priest: I now pronounce you husband and wife
REPRESENTATIVES
The earth is flat
EXPRESSIVES
Congratulations!
DIRECTIVES
Don’t touch that
COMMISSIVES
I’ll be back

15. Pragmatics I'd be grateful if you'd shut the door.
INDIRECT SPEECH ACTS
SAID
I'd be grateful if you'd shut the door.  
Would you mind shutting the door? 
Could you shut the door? 
It'd help to have the door shut. 
It's getting cold in here.  
Shall we keep out the draught?
Now, Jane, what have you forgotten to do?
Brr!
UNSAID 

16. Pragmatics DIRECT SPEECH ACTS Teacher to student: "Pick up the chalk"
Vs 
INDIRECT SPEECH ACTS 
Teacher:"Johnny, there's some chalk on the floor"
A>unsuccessful unsaid B> successful unsaid
 S.:" Yes there is, sir S.:" Yes, here you are, sir."
T.:" Well, pick it up, then!"