1. Chapter 5 Memory

2. An Interesting Phenomenon: Flashbulb Memories
See in class!

3. Topics to Explore Stages of Memory Encoding Information into Memory
Retrieving Information from Memory
Improving Memory

4. Part 1 Stages of Memory

5. Memory: Key Terms
Memory: Active system that stores, organizes, alters, and recovers (retrieves) information
Encoding: Converting information into a useable form
Storage: Holding this information in memory
Retrieval: Taking memories out of storage

6. Stages of Memory
Sensory Memory
Short-Term Memory
Long-Term Memory

7. Sensory Memory
Sensory Memory: Storing an exact copy of incoming information for less than a second; the first stage of memory
Icon: A fleeting mental image or visual representation
Echo: After a sound is heard, a brief continuation of the sound in the auditory system

8. A Little Demonstration of Sensory Memory
See in class!

9. A Little Demonstration of Sensory Memory
See in class!

10. Short-Term Memory (STM)
Short-Term Memory (STM): second stage of memory; stores small amounts of information briefly; very sensitive to interruption or interference
Phonetically: Storing information by sound; how most things are stored in STM
Memory Span: STM is limited to holding seven (plus or minus two) information bits at once
Chunk: Meaningful units of information in memory

11. Storing Info in STM
Recoding: Reorganizing or modifying information in STM
Maintenance Rehearsal: Repeating information silently to prolong its presence in STM
Elaborative Rehearsal: Links new information with existing memories and knowledge in LTM; Good way to transfer STM information into LTM

12. A Little Demonstration of Short-Term Memory
See in class!

13. A Little Demonstration of Short-Term Memory
See in class!

14. A Little Demonstration of Chunking
See in class!

15. Long-Term Memory (LTM)
Storing information relatively permanently
Stored on basis of meaning and importance

16. Types of Long-Term Memory
Explicit (declarative) memory (facts): factual knowledge & personal experiences
Semantic Memory: Impersonal facts and everyday knowledge
Episodic Memory: Personal experiences linked with specific times and places
Implicit (procedural) Memory (skills): Long-term memories of conditioned responses and learned skills, e.g., driving

17. Example: Skill vs. Fact Memory
Amnesiac patient was able to solve tower puzzle in 31 moves (minimum possible), but each time he began, he swore he couldn’t solve the puzzle. Evidence that skill memory and fact memory are separate and distinct.

18. Graphic: Patterns of Blood Flow in Cerebral Cortex
Front of brain is related to episodic memory. Back of brain is related to semantic memory.

19. Memory Organizational Chart

20. Loss of Memory
Anterograde amnesia: the inability to form new explicit long-term memories for events following brain trauma or surgery. Explicit memories formed before are left intact. Cause possibly is damage to hippocampus
Retrograde amnesia: the disruption of memory for the past, especially espisodic memory. After brain trauma or surgery, there often is retrograde amnesia for events occurring just before.
Infantile/child amnesia: the inability as adults to remember events that occurred in our lives before about 3 years of age. Due possibly to fact that hippocampus is not fully developed.

21. Serial Position Effect
Recall: Direct retrieval of facts or information
Serial Position Effect:
Hardest to recall items in the middle of a list
Primacy effect: easier to remember items first in a list than items in the middle, because first items are studied the most
Recency effect: easier to remember items last in a list than items in the middle, because the last items were last studied

22. Graphic: Serial Position Effect

23. A Little Demonstration: Serial Position Effect
See in class!

24. A Little Demonstration: Serial Position Effect
See in class!

25. Graphic: Stages of Memory

26. Comparison of Three Stages of Memory
Sensory
Large capacity
Contains sensory information
Very brief retention (1/2 sec for visual; 2 secs for auditory)
Short Term
Limited capacity
Acoustically encoded
Brief storage (up to 30 seconds w/o rehearsal)
Conscious processing of information
Long Term
Unlimited capacity
Semantically encoded
Storage presumed permanent
Information highly organized

27. Part 2 Encoding Information into Memory

28. Types of Processing
Automatic processing: memory processing that occurs subconsciously and does not require attention.
Example: How many of you can sing the theme song for Gilligan’s Island? How many learned it on purpose?
Effortful processing: memory processing that occurs consciously and requires attention
Example: How many of you can name all of the divisions of the nervous system? How many learned it on purpose?

29. Levels-of-Processing Theory
Levels-of-processing theory: a theory of information processing in memory that assumes that semantic processing leads to better long-term memory
Physical memory processing: encoding the word “birthday” by the way it is spelt, b – i – r – t – h – d – a – y
Acoustic memory processing: encoding the word “birthday” by the way it sounds
Semantic memory processing: encoding the word “birthday” by its meaning, “a day of joy and celebration commemorating the anniversary of one’s birth.”

30. Factors Affecting Encoding
Encoding specificity principle: the principle that the environmental cues present at the time information is encoded into long-term memory serve as the best retrieval cues for the information.
State-dependent memory: long-term memory retrieval is best when a person’s physiological state at the time of encoding and retrieval is the same.
Mood-dependent memory: long-term memory retrieval is best when a person’s mood state at the time of encoding and retrieval is the same.
Mood-congruence effect: long-term memory retrieval is best for experiences and information that are congruent with a person’s current mood.

31. Example: Mood & Memory

32. Improving Encoding Mnemonics: a memory aid
Method of loci: a mnemonic in which sequential pieces of information are encoded by associating them with sequential locations in a very familiar room or location.
Peg-word system: a mnemonic in which the items in a list to be remembered are associated with the sequential items in a memorized jingle (“Every good boy does fine”)
Spacing (distributed study) effect: long-term memory is better when spaced study is used than when massed study (cramming) is used

33. Part 3 Retrieving Information from Memory

34. Measuring Retrieval
Recall: a measure of long-term memory retrieval that requires the reproduction of the information with essentially no retrieval cues.
Recognition: a measure of long-term memory retrieval that only requires the identification of the information in the presence of retrieval cues.
Relearning: the savings method of measuring long-term memory retrieval, in which the measure is the amount of time saved when learning information for the second time.

35. Example: Recall versus Recognition
Example of Recall:
The process of storing information in memory is called ______________.
Example of Recognition:
The process of storing information in memory is called:
a. rehearsal b. deep processing
c. encoding d. retrieval

36. Forgetting Due to Encoding Failure?
Encoding failure theory: a theory that proposes that forgetting is due to the failure to encode the information into long-term memory

37. A Little Demonstration
See in class!

38. Which is the Real Penny?
See in class!

39. Forgetting Due to Decay in Storage?
Storage decay theory: a theory that proposes that forgetting is due to the decay of physical traces of the information in the brain; periodically using the information helps to maintain it in the brain
The “Use it or lose it” theory!

40. Graphic: Forgetting Curve

41. Forgetting Due to Interference?
Interference theory: a theory that proposes that forgetting is due to other information in memory interfering
Proactive interference: old information interferes with the retrieval of newly-stored information
Retroactive Interference: newly-stored information interferes with the retrieval of previously-stored information

42. Retroactive vs. Proactive Interference

43. Graph: Effect of Interference
Percent recalled dependent on number of previous lists memorized

44. Forgetting Due to Loss of Cues?
Cue-dependent theory: a theory that proposes that forgetting is due to the unavailability of the retrieval cues necessary to locate the information in long-term memory.
This is one explanation for why we do not seem to have many memories from early childhood (ages 3 to 6 or so)

45. Part 4 Improving Memory

46. Some Ways to Improve Memory
Knowledge of Results: Feedback allowing you to check your progress
Recitation: Summarizing aloud while you are learning
Rehearsal: Reviewing information mentally (silently)
Selection: Selecting most important concepts to memorize
Organization: Organizing difficult items into chunks; a type of reordering

47. More Ways to Improve Memory
Whole Learning: Studying an entire package of information at once, like a poem
Part Learning: Studying subparts of a larger body of information (like text chapters)
Progressive Part Learning: Breaking learning task into a series of short sections
Serial Position Effect: Making most errors while remembering the middle of the list
Overlearning: Studying is continued beyond bare mastery

48. Yet More Ways to Improve Memory
Spaced Practice: Alternating study sessions with brief rest periods
Massed Practice: Studying for long periods without rest periods
Lack of sleep decreases retention; sleep aids consolidation
Hunger decreases retention

49. Memory & Sleep

50. A Last Method to Help Memory
Mnemonics: Memory “tricks”; any kind of memory system or aid
Using mental pictures
Making things meaningful
Making information familiar
Forming bizarre, unusual or exaggerated mental associations