1. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009
PowerPoint Presentations for
Sixth Edition
Philip G. Zimbardo Robert L. Johnson Vivian McCann
Prepared by
Beth M. Schwartz
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2. Learning and Human Nature
Chapter 3
Learning and Human Nature
This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law.  The following are prohibited by law: any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or part, of any images; any rental, lease, or lending of the program. ISBN:
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Learning vs. Instincts
Learning – A process through which experience produces lasting change in behavior or mental processes
Habituation- Learning not to respond to stimulation
Instincts- Motivated behaviors that have a strong innate basis
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Learning
Mere exposure effect – Learned preference for stimuli to which we have been previously exposed
Behavioral learning – Forms of learning that can be described in terms of stimuli and responses (e.g. classical and operant conditioning)
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5. What Sort of Learning Does Classical Conditioning Explain?
Classical conditioning is a basic form of learning in which a stimulus that produces an innate reflex becomes associated with a previously neutral stimulus, which then acquires the power to elicit essentially the same response
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6. The Essentials of Classical Conditioning
Neutral stimulus – Any stimulus that produces no conditioned response prior to learning
Acquisition – Initial learning stage in classical conditioning
conditioned response (CR) becomes elicited by the conditioned stimulus (CS)
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7. The Essentials of Classical Conditioning
Two related events:
Lightning
Stimulus 1
Thunder
Stimulus 2
Result after repetition
We see
lightning
Stimulus
We wince
anticipating
thunder
Response
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8. Basic Features of Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Unconditioned response (UCR)
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Conditioned response (CR)
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10. The Essentials of Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
The stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response
Unconditioned response (UCR)
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Conditioned response (CR)
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11. The Essentials of Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
The response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning
Unconditioned response (UCR)
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Conditioned response (CR)
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12. The Essentials of Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Unconditioned response (UCR)
A previously neutral stimulus that comes to elicit the conditioned response
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Conditioned response (CR)
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13. The Essentials of Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Unconditioned response (UCR)
A response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus that has become associated with the conditioned stimulus
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Conditioned response (CR)
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14. Classical Conditioning
Prior to conditioning
Neutral stimulus
(tone)
(Orientation to sound
but no response)
Unconditioned stimulus
(food powder in mouth)
Unconditioned response
(salivation)
Conditioning
Neutral stimulus
CS (tone)
Conditioned response
(salivation) +
Unconditioned stimulus
(food powder)
After conditioning
Conditioned stimulus
(tone)
Conditioned response
(salivation)
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15. Classical Conditioning
Extinction – Weakening of a conditioned association in the absence of an unconditioned stimulus or reinforcer
Spontaneous recovery – Reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a time delay
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16. Classical Conditioning: Generalization and Discrimination
Stimulus generalization involves giving a conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the CS
Stimulus discrimination involves responding to one stimulus but not to stimuli that are similar
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17. Applications of Classical Conditioning
Conditioned Food Aversions– Biological tendency in which an organism learns to avoid food with a certain sight, smell, or taste after a single experience, if eating it is followed by illness
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18. How Do We Learn New Behaviors by Operant Conditioning?
In operant conditioning, the consequences of behavior, such as rewards and punishments, influence the probability that the behavior will occur again
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19. Operant Conditioning Illustrated
Response
Response: Pushing
vending machine button
Stimulus
Consequence: Receiving
a candy bar
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20. How Do We Learn New Behaviors by Operant Conditioning?
Trial-and-error learning – Learner gradually discovers the correct response by attempting many behaviors and noting which ones produce the desired consequences
Thorndike-law of effect
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21. Skinner’s Radical Behaviorism
B.F. Skinner believed that the most powerful influences on behavior are its consequences
“The power of reinforcement”
reward = conditions that follow and strengthen a response
Operant chamber
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23. The Power of Reinforcement
Positive reinforcers – Stimulus presented after a response that increases the probability of that response happening again
Positive = add or apply
Negative reinforcers – Removal of an unpleasant stimulus, that increases the probability of that response happening again
Negative = subtract or remove
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24. Contingencies of Reinforcement:
Varying the timing and frequency of reinforcement
Continuous reinforcement – Reinforcement schedule in which all correct responses are reinforced
Partial (intermittent) reinforcement – Reinforcement schedule in which some, but not all, correct responses are reinforced
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25. Schedules of Reinforcement
Ratio schedules – Provide reward after a certain number of responses
Interval schedules – Provide reward after a certain time interval
Fixed Ratio (FR)
Variable Ratio (VR)
Fixed Interval (FI)
Variable Interval (VI)
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26. Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio (FR)
Rewards appear after a certain set number of responses
Variable Ratio (VR)
e.g. factory workers getting paid after every 10 cases of product are completed
Fixed Interval (FI)
Variable Interval (VI)
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27. Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio (FR)
Rewards appear after a certain number of responses, but that number varies from trial to trial
Variable Ratio (VR)
Fixed Interval (FI)
e.g. slot machine pay-offs
Variable Interval (VI)
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28. Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio (FR)
Rewards appear after a certain fixed amount of time, regardless of number of responses
Variable Ratio (VR)
Fixed Interval (FI)
e.g. weekly or monthly paychecks
Variable Interval (VI)
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29. Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio (FR)
Rewards appear after a certain amount of time, but that amount varies from trial to trial
Variable Ratio (VR)
Fixed Interval (FI)
e.g. random visits from the boss who delivers praise
Variable Interval (VI)
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30. The Power of Reinforcement
Primary reinforcers – Reinforcers that fulfill basic biological needs or desires, such as food and sex, that have an innate basis to an organism
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31. The Power of Reinforcement
Secondary (conditioned) reinforcers – Stimuli, such as money or tokens, that acquire their reinforcing power by their learned association with primary reinforcers
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Punishment
Punishment – An aversive stimulus which diminishes the strength of the response it follows
How does this differ from negative reinforcement?
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33. Punishment vs. Negative Reinforcement
Response
Consequence
Negative Reinforcement
Loud Noise
Press Lever
Loud Noise Removed
Punishment
No Noise
Press Lever
Loud Noise Applied
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Types of Punishment
Positive punishment – The application or presentation of an aversive stimulus after a response
Negative punishment – The removal of an attractive stimulus after a response
Both attempt to decrease the likelihood that a behavior will reoccur
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35. Four Kinds of Consequences
Positive
(Add)
STIMULUS
Negative
(Subtract)
GOAL
Increase Behavior
Positive Reinforcement
Bonus for working hard leads to more hard work
Negative Reinforcement
Aspirin relieving headache leads to more aspirin use
Decrease Behavior
Positive Punishment
Getting speeding ticket leads to less speeding
Missing dinner leads to less staying out late
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The Use of Punishment
Punishment can result in immediate change in behavior, often making it an easy solution; should be a logical consequence to make it work
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37. The Abuse of Punishment
Problems associated with punishment:
Power of use usually disappears when threat of punishment is removed
Rewards can override/overpower the punishment
Often triggers escape or aggression
Teaches legitimate use of aggression to influence others
May inhibit learning new and better responses
Is often applied unequally
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38. When does punishment work?
when presented without delay
when consistent
when limited in duration and intensity
when consequence is logical
limited to the specific situation at hand
when no mixed messages are sent
when negative punishment is used
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39. Operant and Classical Conditioning Compared
Classical conditioning involves the association of two stimuli (UCS + CS) before the response or behavior
Operant conditioning involves a reinforcing (reward) or punishing stimulus after a response or behavior
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41. How Does Cognitive Psychology Explain Learning?
According to cognitive psychology, some forms of learning must be explained as changes in mental processes, rather than as changes in behavior alone
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42. How Does Cognitive Psychology Explain Learning?
Insight learning – Problem solving occurs by suddenly perceiving new forms or relationships
Cognitive maps – A mental image used to navigate through a familiar environment
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43. How Does Cognitive Psychology Explain Learning?
Latent learning-
when learning occurs without reinforcement and without any hint that learning took place
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44. Observational Learning: Bandura’s Challenge to Behaviorism
Observational learning (social learning)–
form of cognitive learning
new responses are acquired after watching others’ behavior and consequences of their behavior
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45. Rethinking Behavioral Learning in Cognitive Terms
Cognitive-behavioral psychologists
associations occur when the organism is seen as an information seeker using logical and perceptual relations among events
reinforcement changes expectations for future rewards or punishments
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