1. When a Lie Becomes Memory’s Truth: Memory Distortion After Exposure to Misinformation
Elizabeth Loftus (1992)

2. Memory Distortion
Previous research has been done on the influence of new information on the recollections of such
Current research shows how memory can become skewed when people assimilate new data

3. Memory Distortion There are varied degrees of distorted reporting
People have recalled seeing nonexistent items
People have recalled incorrect traits for items they did not see
Misleading post event information can alter a person’s recollection in a powerful, even predictable manner

4. When People are Susceptible to Misinformation
People are particularly prone to having their memories modified when the passage of time allows the original memory to fade
Discrepancy Detection Principle – Recollections are more likely to change if a person does not immediately detect discrepancies between post event information and memory
If people are exposed to misinformation that is subtle they are more likely to be influenced than if the misinformation is not subtle

5. When people Are Susceptible to Misinformation
If people are warned prior to a post event narrative that the narrative that the narrative may be misleading, they are better able to resist its influence than if they are not warned

6. Who is Susceptible to Misinformation
It is common (although not universal) to find that young children are especially susceptible to these manipulations
In a memory manipulation experiment done with a group of 2,000 people between the ages 5 and 75:
Memory performance rose as a function of age up to the 20s, leveled off, and then fell sharply for subjects over age 65

7. What Happens to the Original Memory?
Misinformation could cause Trace Impairment
It could either update or alter the previously formed memory
New information could combine with earlier traces to change the representation
Misinformation could cause Retrieval Impairment
Misinformation could make the original memory trace less accessible without altering it

8. What Happens to the Original Memory?
McCloskey and Zaragoza disagreed with the idea that the misinformation effect is due to recording processes or updating of previously stored memories
They argue that the misinformation does not affect memory at all, but merely influences the reports of subjects who have never encoded the original event
Instead of guessing blindly, these subjects use the misinformation to decide what to report as their memory
Misinformation could also be obtained if subjects remember both sources of information but select the misleading information because they conclude it must be correct

9. What Happens to the Original Memory
Evidence that supports the notion that misinformation occasionally does impair the ability to remember original details
One kind of evidence involves studies using tests that do not permit the misinformation option
A second line of evidence involves the use of a yes-no test

10. Do People Genuinely Believe in the Misinformation?
They often express these memories with a great deal of confidence and in great detail
Logic-of –Opposition Paradigm
Tried to offset subjects’ tendency to want to report an item they remembered reading by harshly warning the subjects not to report anything they remembered from the reading
Mislead subject still truly believed that they saw the suggested details

11. Conclusions About Misinformation
Misleading information can truth a lie into memory’s truth
This has implications for the legal field, for advertising, for political persuasion, and for clinical settings
We cannot be completely confident in peoples memories as their earlier recollections may be impaired
Once adopted, the newly created memories can be believed as strongly as genuine memories

12. Is the Size of Misinformation Effect Large Enough to Be Concerned About It
Misleading information has a large enough effect to turn a lie into a memory’s truth
It can cause people to believe that they saw things that never really existed
It can cause people to believe that they saw things differently from the way things actually were
It can make people confident about these false memories and also apparently impair earlier recollections
Concerns should be made regarding misinformation inlegal cases especially with children
E.g. Michael Jackson case

13. Items People Modified In Their Memory
A clean-shaven man developed a mustache
Straight hair became curly
A stop sign became a yield sign
A hammer became a screwdriver

14. Items that People Created and Added to their Memory
Broken glass
Tape recorders
Even something as large and conspicuous as a barn

15. That’s All!!
Karin Leveke and Bobbi Rohwer